Laurel forest, also called laurisilva or laurissilva, is a type of subtropical forest found in areas with high

humidity Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity dep ...

and relatively stable, mild temperatures. The forest is characterized by

broadleaf tree A broad-leaved, broad-leaf, or broadleaf tree is any tree within the diverse botanical group of angiosperms that has flat leaves and produces seeds inside of fruits. It is one of two general types of trees, the other being a conifer, a tree with ne ...

species with

evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...

, glossy and

elongated Elongation may refer to: * Elongation (astronomy) * Elongation (geometry) * Elongation (plasma physics) * Part of transcription of DNA into RNA of all types, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, etc. * Part of translation (biology) of mRNA into proteins ...

leaves, known as "laurophyll" or "lauroid". Plants from the laurel family (

Lauraceae Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur m ...

) may or may not be present, depending on the location.

Ecology

Parque nacional de Garajonay - bosque de laurel

Laurel and laurophyll forests have a patchy distribution in warm

temperate regions In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...

, often occupying topographic refugia where the

moisture Moisture is the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Small amounts of water may be found, for example, in the air (humidity), in foods, and in some commercial products. Moisture also refers to the amount of water vapo ...

from the ocean condenses so that it falls as rain or fog and soils have high moisture levels.Abstract
at NASA – MODIS: Izquierdo, T; de las Heras, P; Marquez, A (2011). Vegetation indices changes in the cloud forest of La Gomera Island (Canary Islands) and their hydrological implications". ''Hydrological Processes'', 25(10), 1531–41: " sults prove the absence of summer drought stress in the laurel forest implying that the fog drip income is high enough to maintain enough soil moisture". They have a mild

climate Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorologica ...

, seldom exposed to fires or

frost Frost is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor in an above- freezing atmosphere coming in contact with a solid surface whose temperature is below freezing, and resulting in a phase change from water vapor (a g ...

s and are found in relatively acidic soils. Primary productivity is high, but can be limited by mild summer drought. The canopies are evergreen, dominated by species with glossy- or leathery-leaves, and with moderate tree diversity.

Insects Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...

are the most important herbivores, but

birds Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...

and

bats Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera.''cheir'', "hand" and πτερόν''pteron'', "wing". With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight. Bats are more agile in flight than most bi ...

are the predominant seed-dispersers and

pollinators A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. Insects are the ma ...

Decomposers Decomposers are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms; they carry out decomposition, a process possible by only certain kingdoms, such as fungi. Like herbivores and predators, decomposers are heterotrophic, meaning that they use o ...

such as invertebrates, fungi, and microbes on the forest floor are critical to nutrient cycling. These conditions of temperature and moisture occur in four different

geographical Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and ...

regions: * Along the eastern margin of

continent A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, these seven ...

s at

latitude In geography, latitude is a coordinate that specifies the north– south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from –90° at the south pole to 90° at the north po ...

s of 25° to 35°. * Along the western continental coasts between 35° and 50° latitude. * On islands between 25° and 35° or 40° latitude. * In humid

montane Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial ...

regions of the tropics. Some laurel forests are a type of

cloud forest A cloud forest, also called a water forest, primas forest, or tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF), is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, montane, moist forest characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud ...

. Cloud forests are found on mountain slopes where the dense moisture from the sea or ocean is precipitated as warm moist air masses blowing off the ocean are forced upwards by the terrain, which cools the air mass to the

dew point The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor, assuming constant air pressure and water content. When cooled below the dew point, moisture capacity is reduced and airborne water vapor will c ...

. The moisture in the air condenses as rain or fog, creating a habitat characterized by cool, moist conditions in the air and soil. The resulting climate is wet and mild, with the annual oscillation of the temperature moderated by the proximity of the ocean.

Characteristics

Laurel forests are characterized by evergreen and hardwood trees, reaching up to in height. Laurel forest, laurisilva, and laurissilva all refer to plant communities that resemble the

bay laurel ''Laurus nobilis'' is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, glabrous (smooth) leaves. It is in the flowering plant family Lauraceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and is used as bay leaf for seasoning in cooking. ...

. Some species belong to the true laurel family,

, but many have similar foliage to the Lauraceae due to

convergent evolution Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last com ...

. As in any other rainforest, plants of the laurel forests must adapt to high rainfall and humidity. The trees have adapted in response to these ecological drivers by developing analogous structures, leaves that repel water. Laurophyll or lauroid leaves are characterized by a generous layer of wax, making them glossy in appearance, and a narrow, pointed oval shape with an ''apical mucro'' or "

drip tip This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...

", which permits the leaves to shed water despite the humidity, allowing respiration. The scientific names ''laurina'', ''laurifolia'', ''laurophylla'', ''lauriformis'', and ''lauroides'' are often used to name species of other plant families that resemble the Lauraceae.Otto E. (Otto Emery) Jennings. "Fossil plants from the beds of volcanic ash near Missoula, western Montana" ''Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum'', 8(2)
p. 417
The term ''Lucidophyll'', referring to the shiny surface of the leaves, was proposed in 1969 by Tatuo Kira. The scientific names ''

Daphnidium Dried fruits of ''Lindera neesiana'' used as spice (coll. MHNT) ''Lindera'' is a genus of about 80–100Daphniphyllum'', '' Daphnopsis'', ''

Daphnandra ''Daphnandra'' is a genus of shrubs and trees in the family Atherospermataceae, or formerly Monimiaceae. The genus is endemic to Australia. There are six species, occurring in New South Wales and Queensland: *''Daphnandra apatela'' Schodde Soc ...

'', ''

Daphne Daphne (; ; el, Δάφνη, , ), a minor figure in Greek mythology, is a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater. There are several versions of the myth in wh ...

'' from Greek: Δάφνη, meaning "laurel", ''

laurus ''Laurus'' () is a genus of evergreen trees or shrubs belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus contains three or more species, including the bay laurel or sweet bay, ''L. nobilis'', widely cultivated as an ornamental plant and a cul ...

'', ''

Laureliopsis ''Laureliopsis'' is a genus of flowering plants with just one species, ''Laureliopsis philippiana'', known as tepa and wawán, endemic to Chile and the narrow neighboring strip of Argentina (35 to 45°S). In Chile it is found from Maule to Ays� ...

'', ''

laureola ''Laureola'' is a genus of woodlice, a land crustacean isopod of the family Armadillidae. Species The following species are accepted within ''Laureola'': * '' Laureola bivomer'' * '' Laureola canberrensis'' * '' Laureola dubia'' * '' L ...

'', '' laurelin'', '' laurifolia'', '' laurifolius'', '' lauriformis'', '' laurina'', '' Prunus laurocerasus'' (English laurel), '' Prunus lusitanica'' (Portugal laurel), '' Corynocarpus laevigatus'' (New Zealand Laurel), and '' Corynocarpus rupestris'' designate species of other plant families whose leaves resemble Lauraceae. The term "lauroid" is also applied to climbing plants such as ivies, whose waxy leaves somewhat resemble those of the Lauraceae. Mature laurel forests typically have a dense tree canopy and low light levels at the forest floor. Some forests are characterized by an overstory of

emergent Emergent may refer to: * ''Emergent'' (album), a 2003 album by Gordian Knot * Emergent (software), Neural Simulation Software * Emergent BioSolutions, a multinational biopharmaceutical company headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA * Emerg ...

trees. Laurel forests are typically multi-species, and diverse in both the number of species and the genera and families represented. In the absence of strong environmental selective pressure, the number of species sharing the arboreal stratum is high, although not reaching the diversity of tropical forests; nearly 100 tree species have been described in the laurisilva rainforest of

Misiones Misiones (, ''Missions'') is one of the 23 provinces of Argentina, located in the northeastern corner of the country in the Mesopotamia region. It is surrounded by Paraguay to the northwest, Brazil to the north, east and south, and Corrientes P ...

(

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, t ...

), about 20 in the Canary Islands. This species diversity contrasts with other temperate forest types, which typically have a canopy dominated by one or a few species. Species diversity generally increases towards the tropics. In this sense, the laurel forest is a transitional type between temperate forests and tropical rainforests.

Origin

Laurel forests are composed of

vascular plant Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes () or collectively Tracheophyta (), form a large group of land plants ( accepted known species) that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They ...

s that evolved millions of years ago. Lauroid floras have included forests of

Podocarpaceae Podocarpaceae is a large family of mainly Southern Hemisphere conifers, known in English as podocarps, comprising about 156 species of evergreen trees and shrubs.James E. Eckenwalder. 2009. ''Conifers of the World''. Portland, Oregon: Timber Pre ...

and southern beech. This type of vegetation characterized parts of the ancient

supercontinent In geology, a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass. However, some geologists use a different definition, "a grouping of formerly dispersed continents", which lea ...

Gondwana Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final st ...

and once covered much of the

tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred ...

. Some lauroid species that are found outside laurel forests are relicts of vegetation that covered much of the mainland of Australia, Europe, South America, Antarctica, Africa, and North America when their climate was warmer and more humid. Cloud forests are believed to have retreated and advanced during successive geological eras, and their species adapted to warm and wet conditions were replaced by more cold-tolerant or drought-tolerant

sclerophyll Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that is adapted to long periods of dryness and heat. The plants feature hard leaves, short internodes (the distance between leaves along the stem) and leaf orientation which is parallel or oblique to direct ...

plant communities. Many of the late Cretaceous – early Tertiary Gondwanan species of flora became extinct, but some survived as relict species in the milder, moister climate of coastal areas and on islands. Thus Tasmania and New Caledonia share related species extinct on the Australian mainland, and the same case occurs on the

Macaronesia Macaronesia (Portuguese: ''Macaronésia,'' Spanish: ''Macaronesia'') is a collection of four volcanic archipelagos in the North Atlantic, off the coasts of Africa and Europe. Each archipelago is made up of a number of Atlantic oceanic islands ...

islands of the Atlantic and on the

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northe ...

Hainan Hainan (, ; ) is the smallest and southernmost province of the People's Republic of China (PRC), consisting of various islands in the South China Sea. , the largest and most populous island in China,The island of Taiwan, which is slight ...

, Jeju,

Shikoku is the smallest of the four main islands of Japan. It is long and between wide. It has a population of 3.8 million (, 3.1%). It is south of Honshu and northeast of Kyushu. Shikoku's ancient names include ''Iyo-no-futana-shima'' (), ...

, Kyūshū, and Ryūkyū Islands of the Pacific. Although some remnants of archaic flora, including species and genera extinct in the rest of the world, have persisted as endemic to such coastal mountain and shelter sites, their biodiversity was reduced. Isolation in these fragmented habitats, particularly on islands, has led to the development of

vicariant Allopatric speciation () – also referred to as geographic speciation, vicariant speciation, or its earlier name the dumbbell model – is a mode of speciation that occurs when biological populations become geographically isolated from ...

species and genera. Thus, fossils dating from before the

Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the '' Ice age'') is the geological epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed ...

glaciation A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate bet ...

s show that species of ''

Laurus ''Laurus'' () is a genus of evergreen trees or shrubs belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus contains three or more species, including the bay laurel or sweet bay, ''L. nobilis'', widely cultivated as an ornamental plant and a cul ...

'' were formerly distributed more widely around the Mediterranean and

North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...

. Isolation gave rise to '' Laurus azorica'' in the Azores Islands, ''

Laurus nobilis ''Laurus nobilis'' is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, glabrous (smooth) leaves. It is in the flowering plant family Lauraceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and is used as bay leaf for seasoning in cookin ...

'' on the mainland, and '' Laurus novocanariensis'' in the Madeira and the Canary Islands.

Laurel forest ecoregions

Laurel forests occur in small areas where their particular climatic requirements prevail, in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Inner laurel forest ecoregions, a related and distinct community of

s, evolved millions of years ago on the supercontinent of

, and species of this community are now found in several separate areas of the Southern Hemisphere, including southern

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the souther ...

, southernmost

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 List of islands of New Zealand, smaller islands. It is the ...

, Australia and New Caledonia. Most Laurel forest species are evergreen, and occur in tropical, subtropical, and mild temperate regions and

s of the northern and southern hemispheres, in particular the

n islands, southern Japan,

Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...

, New Caledonia,

Tasmania ) , nickname = , image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdi ...

, and central

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...

, but they are pantropical, and for example in Africa they are endemic to the Congo region,

Cameroon Cameroon (; french: Cameroun, ff, Kamerun), officially the Republic of Cameroon (french: République du Cameroun, links=no), is a country in west- central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west and north; Chad to the northeast; th ...

, Sudan,

Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands ...

, and

Uganda }), is a landlocked country in East Africa. The country is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The south ...

, in lowland forest and

Afromontane The Afromontane regions are subregions of the Afrotropical realm, one of the Earth's eight biogeographic realms, covering the plant and animal species found in the mountains of Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula. The Afromontane regions ...

areas. Since laurel forests are archaic populations that diversified as a result of isolation on islands and tropical mountains, their presence is a key to dating climatic history.

East Asia

Laurel forests are common in subtropical eastern Asia, and form the climax vegetation in far southern Japan,

, southern China, the mountains of

Indochina Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...

, and the eastern

Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over ...

. In southern China, laurel forest once extended throughout the Yangtze Valley and Sichuan Basin from the East China Sea to the

Tibetan Plateau The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the T ...

. The northernmost laurel forests in East Asia occur at 39° N. on the Pacific coast of Japan. Altitudinally, the forests range from sea-level up to 1000 metres in warm-temperate Japan, and up to 3000 metres elevation in the subtropical mountains of Asia. Some forests are dominated by

, while in others evergreen laurophyll trees of the beech family (

Fagaceae The Fagaceae are a family of flowering plants that includes beeches, chestnuts and oaks, and comprises eight genera with about 927 species. Fagaceae in temperate regions are mostly deciduous, whereas in the tropics, many species occur as eve ...

) are predominant, including ring-cupped oaks (''

Quercus An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ' ...

'' subgenus ''Cyclobalanopsis''), chinquapin (''

Castanopsis ''Castanopsis'', commonly called chinquapin or chinkapin, is a genus of evergreen trees belonging to the beech family, Fagaceae. The genus contains about 140 species, which are today restricted to tropical and subtropical eastern Asia. A total ...

'') and tanoak (''

Lithocarpus ''Lithocarpus'' is a genus in the beech family, Fagaceae. Trees in this genus are commonly known as the stone oaks and differ from ''Quercus'' primarily because they produce insect-pollinated flowers on erect spikes and the female flowers ha ...

''). Other characteristic plants include '' Schima'' and ''

Camellia ''Camellia'' (pronounced or ) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae. They are found in eastern and southern Asia, from the Himalayas east to Japan and Indonesia. There are more than 220 described species, with some controvers ...

'', which are members of the tea family (

Theaceae Theaceae (), the tea family, is a family of flowering plants comprising shrubs and trees, including the economically important tea plant, and the ornamental camellias. It can be described as having from seven to 40 genera, depending on the source ...

), as well as

magnolia ''Magnolia'' is a large genus of about 210 to 340The number of species in the genus ''Magnolia'' depends on the taxonomic view that one takes up. Recent molecular and morphological research shows that former genera ''Talauma'', ''Dugandiodendro ...

bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...

, and

rhododendron ''Rhododendron'' (; from Ancient Greek ''rhódon'' "rose" and ''déndron'' "tree") is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are nativ ...

s. These subtropical forests lie between the temperate deciduous and conifer forests to the north and the subtropical/tropical monsoon forests of Indochina and India to the south. Associations of Lauraceous species are common in broadleaved forests; for example, ''

Litsea ''Litsea'' is a genus of evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus includes a large number of accepted species in tropical and subtropical areas of North America and Asia. Characteristics They a ...

'' spp., '' Persea odoratissima,

Persea duthiei ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. O ...

,'' etc., along with such others as ''

Engelhardia spicata ''Engelhardia spicata'' is a species of plant in the Juglandaceae family. It is recognized to include the variety ''E. spicata'' var. ''integra'' (Kurz) W.E. Manning ex Steen. Distribution and habitat Pakistan, India, Nepal, ...

,'' tree rhododendron ('' Rhododendron arboreum''), '' Lyonia ovalifolia,'' wild Himalayan pear (''

Pyrus pashia ''Pyrus pashia'', the wild Himalayan pear, is a small to medium size deciduous tree of the small and oval shaped crown with ovate, finely toothed leaves, attractive white flowers with red anthers and small pear-like fruits. It is a fruit bearing ...

''), sumac (''

Rhus Sumac ( or ), also spelled sumach, is any of about 35 species of flowering plants in the genus ''Rhus'' and related genera in the cashew family (Anacardiaceae). Sumacs grow in subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world, including Ea ...

'' spp.), Himalayan maple (''

Acer oblongum ''Acer oblongum'', common name Himalayan maple, evergreen maple and Kashmir maple, is an evergreen Asian species of maple in the family Sapindaceae. Description ''Acer oblongum'' is a medium-sized evergreen to semi-deciduous tree reaching a he ...

''), box myrtle ('' Myrica esculenta''), ''

Magnolia ''Magnolia'' is a large genus of about 210 to 340The number of species in the genus ''Magnolia'' depends on the taxonomic view that one takes up. Recent molecular and morphological research shows that former genera ''Talauma'', ''Dugandiodendro ...

'' spp., and birch (''

Betula A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contain ...

'' spp.). Some other common trees and large shrub species of subtropical forests are ''

Semecarpus anacardium ''Semecarpus anacardium'', commonly known as the marking nut tree, phobi nut tree and varnish tree, is a native of India, found in the outer Himalayas to the Coromandel Coast. It is closely related to the cashew. Etymology ''Semecarpus anacardi ...

, Crateva unilocularis,

Trewia nudiflora ''Mallotus nudiflorus'' (syn. ''Trevia nudiflora''), the false white teak, is a species of flowering plant in the family Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae, the spurge family, is a large family of flowering plants. In English, they are also commonly ...

, Premna interrupta'', Vietnam elm (''

Ulmus lancifolia ''Ulmus lanceifolia'' Roxburgh, ex Wall.
occasionally known as the Vietnam elm, is a very large tree endemic to a wide area of southern ...

''), ''

Ulmus chumlia ''Ulmus chumlia'' is a small deciduous tree endemic to the Himalaya from the Kashmir to central Nepal,Anisko, T. (2006). On the trail of the Himalayan elms. ''Plant exploration for Longwood Gardens''. 19–23. Timber Press. and the provinces ...

Glochidion velutinum ''Glochidion'' is a genus of flowering plants, of the family Phyllanthaceae, known as cheese trees or buttonwood in Australia, and leafflower trees in the scientific literature. It comprises about 300 species, distributed from Madagascar to the ...

'', beautyberry (''

Callicarpa arborea ''Callicarpa'' (beautyberry) is a genus of shrubs and small trees in the family Lamiaceae.Heywood, V.H., Brummitt, R.K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. 2007: Flowering Plant Families of the World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. They are native to east a ...

''), Indian mahogany (''

Toona ciliata ''Toona ciliata'' is a forest tree in the mahogany family which grows throughout southern Asia from Afghanistan to Papua New Guinea and Australia. Names It is commonly known as the red cedar (a name shared by other trees), toon or toona (also ...

''), fig tree (''

Ficus ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending int ...

'' spp.), '' Mahosama similicifolia, Trevesia palmata,'' brushholly (''

Xylosma longifolium ''Xylosma'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Salicaceae. It contains around 100 species of evergreen shrubs and trees commonly known as brushhollies, xylosmas, or, more ambiguously, "logwoods". The generic name is derived from the Gr ...

''), false nettle (''

Boehmeria rugulosa ''Boehmeria'' is a genus of 47 species of flowering plants in the nettle family Urticaceae. Of the species, 33 are indigenous to the Old World and 14 to the New World; no species is indigenous to both the Old and New Worlds. The species include ...

''), ''

Schefflera venulosa ''Schefflera'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araliaceae. With an estimated 600–900 species, the genus represents about half of its family. The plants are trees, shrubs or lianas, growing tall, with woody stems, the absence of a ...

Casearia graveilens ''Casearia'' is a plant genus in the family Salicaceae. The genus was included in the Flacourtiaceae under the Cronquist system of angiosperm classification, and earlier in the Samydaceae. Recent research indicates that the latter group might be ...

Actinodaphne reticulata ''Actinodaphne'' is an Asian genus of flowering plants in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It contains approximately 121 species

Sapium insigne ''Falconeria'' is a monotypic plant genus in the family Euphorbiaceae, first described as a genus in 1839. The genus is sometimes included within the genus ''Sapium''. The sole species is ''Falconeria insignis''. The plant is found from India, N ...

'', Nepalese alder ('' Alnus nepalensis''), marlberry (''

Ardisia thyrsiflora ''Ardisia'' (coralberry or marlberry) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. It was in the former Myrsinaceae family now recognised as the myrsine sub-family Myrsinoideae. They are distributed in the Americas, Asia, Australia, ...

''), holly (''

Ilex ''Ilex'' (), or holly, is a genus of over 570 species of flowering plants in the family Aquifoliaceae, and the only living genus in that family. ''Ilex'' has the most species of any woody dioecious angiosperm genus. The species are evergreen o ...

'' spp), '' Macaranga pustulata,

Trichilia cannoroides ''Trichilia'' is a flowering plant genus in the family Meliaceae. These plants are particularly diverse in sub-Saharan Africa and tropical South America. Several species are used in folk medicine and shamanism – e.g. '' T. rubescens'' agai ...

,'' hackberry ('' Celtis tetrandra''), '' Wenlendia puberula, Saurauia nepalensis,'' ring-cupped oak ('' Quercus glauca''), '' Ziziphus incurva,

Camellia kissi ''Camellia'' (pronounced or ) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae. They are found in eastern and southern Asia, from the Himalayas east to Japan and Indonesia. There are more than 220 described species, with some controversy ...

Hymenodictyon flaccidum ''Hymenodictyon'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It has about 30 species.''Hymenodictyon'' At: World Checklist of Rubiaceae At: Kew Gardens Website. (see ''External links'' below). All are native to the Old World. The w ...

Maytenus thomsonii ''Maytenus'' ''Sunset Western Garden Book,'' 1995:606–607 is a genus of flowering plants in the family Celastraceae. Members of the genus are distributed throughout Central America, Central and South America, Southeast Asia, Micronesia and Aust ...

'', winged prickly ash (''

Zanthoxylum armatum ''Zanthoxylum armatum'', also called winged prickly ash or rattan pepper in English, is a species of plant in the family Rutaceae. It is an aromatic, deciduous, spiny shrub growing to in height, endemic from Pakistan across to Southeast Asia an ...

''), ''

Eurya acuminata ''Eurya'' is a genus of about 70 species of flowering plants in the family Pentaphylacaceae. Fossil record Several fossil seeds of ''Eurya stigmosa'' have been described from Middle Miocene strata of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in centra ...

'', matipo ('' Myrsine semiserrata''), '' Sloanea tomentosa,

Hydrangea aspera ''Hydrangea aspera'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Hydrangeaceae, native to the region between the Himalayas, across southern China, to Taiwan. It is a large, erect deciduous shrub growing to tall and wide, with broadly oval le ...

, Symplocos'' spp., and '' Cleyera'' spp. In the temperate zone, the cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m altitude supports broadleaved evergreen forest dominated by plants such as '' Quercus lamellosa'' and '' Q. semecarpifolia'' in pure or mixed stands. '' Lindera'' and ''Litsea'' species, Himalayan hemlock (''

Tsuga dumosa ''Tsuga dumosa'', commonly called the Himalayan hemlock or in Chinese, Yunnan tieshan (), is a species of conifer native to the eastern Himalayas. It occurs in parts of Nepal, India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Vietnam and Tibet. Within its native range t ...

''), and ''Rhododendron'' spp. are also present in the upper levels of this zone. Other important species are '' Magnolia campbellii,

Michelia doltsopa ''Magnolia doltsopa'' is a large shrub or small tree native to the eastern Himalayan region and the Meghalaya subtropical forests in Northeastern India. The wood is fragrant. Description The plant varies in form from bushy to narrow and upright, ...

,'' andromeda (''

Pieris ovalifolia Pieris may refer to: Organisms * ''Pieris'' (plant), the andromeda or fetterbush, a plant genus in the family Ericaceae * ''Pieris'' (butterfly), the garden whites, a butterfly genus in the family Pieridae * ''Pieris'', a synonym of the genus ...

''), ''

Daphniphyllum himalense ''Daphniphyllum'' is the sole genus in the flowering plant family Daphniphyllaceae and was described as a genus in 1826. The genus includes evergreen shrubs and trees mainly native to east and southeast Asia, but also found in the Indian Subconti ...

Acer campbellii ''Acer campbellii'' (Campbell's maple, 藏南枫) is a species of maple tree indigenous to mixed forests at altitudes of 1800–3700 meters in Bhutan, northern India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam, as well as southern Sichuan, southern Xizang, and ...

, Acer pectinatum'', and '' Sorbus cuspidata'', but these species do not extend toward the west beyond central Nepal. Nepalese alder (''Alnus nepalensis''), a pioneer tree species, grows gregariously and forms pure patches of forests on newly exposed slopes, in gullies, beside rivers, and in other moist places. The common forest types of this zone include ''Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron barbatum, Lyonia'' spp., '' Pieris formosa;

'' forest with such deciduous taxa as maple (''

Acer Acer may refer to: * ''Acer'' (plant), the genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples * Acer Inc., a computer company in Taiwan ** Acer Laboratories Incorporated, a subsidiary company of Acer, Inc., that designs and manufactures integrate ...

'') and ''Magnolia''; deciduous mixed broadleaved forest of ''Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum, Sorbus cuspidata'', and '' Magnolia campbellii''; mixed broadleaved forest of ''Rhododendron arboreum, Acer campbellii,

Symplocos ramosissima ''Symplocos'' is a genus of flowering plants in the order Ericales. It contains about 300 species distributed in Asia and the Americas. Many species grow in humid tropical regions. This is sometimes considered to be the only genus in family Sympl ...

'' and Lauraceae. This zone is habitat for many other important tree and large shrub species such as pindrow fir ('' Abies pindrow''), East Himalayan fir (''

Abies spectabilis ''Abies spectabilis'', the East Himalayan fir, is a conifer species in the family (biology), family Pinaceae and the genus ''Abies''. It is sometimes held to include the Abies densa, Bhutan fir (''A. densa'') as a variety (botany), variety. It is ...

''), ''Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum,'' Himalayan birch (''

Betula utilis ''Betula utilis'', the Himalayan birch (''bhojpatra'', sa, भूर्ज ''bhūrjá''), is a deciduous tree native to the Western Himalayas, growing at elevations up to . The Latin specific epithet ''utilis'' means "useful", and refers to th ...

''), ''

Betula alnoides ''Betula alnoides'' (; th, กำลังเสือโคร่ง, , literally: "tiger power") is a species of birch that can be found in natural condition of such countries as Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal ...

,'' boxwood (''

Buxus rugulosa ''Buxus'' is a genus of about seventy species in the family Buxaceae. Common names include box or boxwood. The boxes are native to western and southern Europe, southwest, southern and eastern Asia, Africa, Madagascar, northernmost South ...

''), Himalayan flowering dogwood ('' Cornus capitata''), hazel ('' Corylus ferox''), ''

Deutzia staminea, ''Deutzia'' ( or ) is a genus of about 60 species of flowering plants in the family Hydrangeaceae, native to eastern and central Asia (from the Himalayas east to Japan and the Philippines), and Central America and also Europe. By far the highest ...

'' spindle (''

Euonymus tingens ''Euonymus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the staff vine family, Celastraceae. Common names vary widely among different species and between different English-speaking countries, but include spindle (or spindle tree), burning-bush, stra ...

''), Siberian ginseng ('' Acanthopanax cissifolius''), ''

Coriaria terminalis ''Coriaria'' is the sole genus in the family Coriariaceae, which was described by Linnaeus in 1753. It includes 14 species of small trees, shrubs and subshrubs, with a widespread but disjunct distribution across warm temperate regions of the worl ...

'' ash ('' Fraxinus macrantha''), '' Dodecadenia grandiflora,

Eurya cerasifolia ''Eurya'' is a genus of about 70 species of flowering plants in the family Pentaphylacaceae. Fossil record Several fossil seeds of ''Eurya stigmosa'' have been described from Middle Miocene strata of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in ...

, Hydrangea heteromala,

Ilex dipyrena ''Ilex'' (), or holly, is a genus of over 570 species of flowering plants in the family Aquifoliaceae, and the only living genus in that family. ''Ilex'' has the most species of any woody dioecious angiosperm genus. The species are evergreen o ...

'', privet ('' Ligustrum'' spp.), '' Litsea elongata'', common walnut (''

Juglans regia ''Juglans regia'', the Persian walnut, English walnut, Carpathian walnut, Madeira walnut, or especially in Great Britain, common walnut, is an Old World walnut tree species native to the region stretching from the Balkans eastward to the Himalay ...

''), '' Lichelia doltsopa,

Myrsine capitallata ''Myrsine'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. It was formerly placed in the family Myrsinaceae before this was merged into the Primulaceae. It is found nearly worldwide, primarily in tropical and subtropical areas. It cont ...

Neolitsea umbrosa ''Neolitsea'' is a genus of about 85 species of evergreen shrubs and small trees in the laurel family Lauraceae. They range from Indo-Malaysia to East Asia to Australia. The leaves are alternate, clustered, or verticillate, rarely subopposite. Sp ...

,'' mock-orange (''

Philadelphus tomentosus ''Philadelphus'' () (mock-orange) is a genus of about 60 species of shrubs from 3–20 ft (1–6 m) tall, native to North America, Central America, Asia and (locally) in southeast Europe. They are named "mock-orange" in reference to their ...

''), sweet olive (''

Osmanthus fragrans ''Osmanthus fragrans'' (lit. "fragrant osmanthus"; Chinese: , ''guìhuā'', and , ''mùxī''; ; Shanghainese: ''kue35 ho53''; ja, 木犀, ''mokusei''; hi, , ''silang''), variously known as sweet osmanthus, sweet olive, tea olive, and ...

''), Himalayan bird cherry ('' Prunus cornuta''), and ''

Viburnum continifolium ''Viburnum'' is a genus of about 150–175 species of flowering plants in the moschatel family Adoxaceae. Its current classification is based on molecular phylogeny. It was previously included in the honeysuckle family Caprifoliaceae. The membe ...

''. In ancient times, laurel forests (''shoyojurin'') were the predominant vegetation type in the

Taiheiyo evergreen forests The Taiheiyo evergreen forests is a temperate broadleaf forest ecoregion of Japan. Geography The ecoregion covers an area of on the Pacific ''(Taiheiyo)'' side of the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It also includes Tsushima Island in ...

ecoregion of Japan, which encompasses the mild temperate climate region of southeastern Japan's Pacific coast. There were three main types of evergreen broadleaf forests, in which ''Castanopsis'', '' Machilus'', or ''Quercus'' predominated. Most of these forests were logged or cleared for cultivation and replanted with faster-growing

conifer Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All ex ...

s, like

pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family (biology), family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanic ...

or hinoki, and only a few pockets remain.

Laurel forest ecoregions in East Asia

Changjiang Plain evergreen forests The Changjiang Plain evergreen forests ecoregion (WWF ID: PA0415) covers the plain of the Yangtze River (Changjiang) from where it leaves the mountains at the Three Gorges in the west, to the mouth of the Yangtze at the East China Sea. This plai ...

( China) *

Chin Hills–Arakan Yoma montane forests The Chin Hills-Arakan Yoma montane forests is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion in western Myanmar (Burma). Surrounded at lower elevations by moist tropical forests, this ecoregion is home a diverse range of subtropical ...

(

Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...

) * Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests (

Bhutan Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountai ...

India India, officially the Republic of India ( Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the ...

Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...

) *

Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests The Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests are a subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion in the Yungui Plateau of China. Much of the original forest has been replaced by secondary forests. Geography The Guizhou Plateau broadleaf an ...

(China) *

Nihonkai evergreen forests The Nihonkai evergreen forests ecoregion (WWF ID: PA0427) covers a thin strip of land on the western coast (facing the Sea of Japan) of the island of Honshu in Japan. It is bounded on the east by the Nihonkai montane deciduous forests ecoregion. ...

( Japan) *

Northern Annamites rain forests The Northern Annamites rain forests ecoregion (WWF ID: IM0136) covers the rugged and relatively unexplored northern Annamite Mountains of central Laos and Vietnam. There are high numbers of endemic plant species, and the relative remoteness and i ...

( Laos,

Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making it ...

) *

Northern Indochina subtropical forests The Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests are a subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of northern Indochina, covering portions of Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, and China's Yunnan Province. Setting The Northern Indochina subtrop ...

(China, Laos, Myanmar,

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...

, Vietnam) *

Northern Triangle subtropical forests The Northern Triangle subtropical forests ecoregion (WWF ID:IM0140) covers remote, mountainous terrain in the far north of Myanmar. Due to the regions isolation it is relatively untouched and unexplored by humans. Over 95% of the ecoregion is cove ...

(Myanmar) *

South China–Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests The South China-Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests ecoregion (WWF ID: IM0149) covers the mountainous coastal region of southeastern China and northeastern Vietnam. The ecoregional also covers the coastal plain along the South China Sea and Hain ...

(China, Vietnam) * Southern Korea evergreen forests (

South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...

) *

(Japan) *

Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests The Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests is an ecoregion that covers most of the island of Taiwan, with the exception of the southern tip of the island, which constitutes the South Taiwan monsoon rain forests ecoregion. The island's concentrated ...

(

)

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines

Laurel forests occupy the humid tropical highlands of the

Malay Peninsula The Malay Peninsula ( Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The are ...

Greater Sunda Islands The Greater Sunda Islands (Indonesian and Malay: ''Kepulauan Sunda Besar'') are four tropical islands situated within Indonesian Archipelago, in the Pacific Ocean. The islands, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra, are internationally recognise ...

, and Philippines above elevation. The flora of these forests is similar to that of the warm-temperate and subtropical laurel forests of East Asia, including oaks ''(

)'', tanoak ''(

)'', chinquapin ''(

)'', Lauraceae,

, and Clethraceae. Epiphytes, including orchids, ferns, moss, lichen, and liverworts, are more abundant than in either temperate laurel forests or the adjacent lowland tropical rain forests.

Myrtaceae Myrtaceae, the myrtle family, is a family of dicotyledonous plants placed within the order Myrtales. Myrtle, pōhutukawa, bay rum tree, clove, guava, acca (feijoa), allspice, and eucalyptus are some notable members of this group. All spe ...

are common at lower elevations, and conifers and rhododendrons at higher elevations. These forests are distinct in species composition from the lowland tropical forests, which are dominated by

Dipterocarp Dipterocarpaceae is a family of 16 genera and about 695 known species of mainly tropical lowland rainforest trees. The family name, from the type genus ''Dipterocarpus'', is derived from Greek (''di'' = two, ''pteron'' = wing and ''karpos'' = fru ...

s and other tropical species.

Laurel forest ecoregions of Sundaland, Wallacea, and the Philippines

* Borneo montane rain forests *

Eastern Java–Bali montane rain forests The Eastern Java–Bali montane rain forests ecoregion (WWF ID: IM0112) covers the higher altitude mountain rainforests on the eastern side of the island of Java, and most of the center of the island of Bali in Indonesia. The region has a number ...

* Luzon montane rain forests * Mindanao montane rain forests *

Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests The Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests is an ecoregion on Malay Peninsula. It occupies the mountainous spine of the peninsula in Malaysia and southernmost Thailand. It is in the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome. G ...

Sulawesi montane rain forests The Sulawesi montane rain forests is a tropical moist forest ecoregion in Indonesia. It includes the highlands of Sulawesi. Geography Sulawesi, with an area of 180,681 km², is the fourth-largest island in Indonesia, and the eleventh-larges ...

Sumatran montane rain forests The Sumatran montane rain forests ecoregion (WWF ID: IM0159) covers the mountainous elevations (greater than 1,000 meters) of the Barisan Mountains Range that runs the length of the southwestern side of the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. The ecor ...

* Western Java montane rain forests

Macaronesia and the Mediterranean Basin

Laurel forests are found in the islands of

in the eastern Atlantic, in particular the

Azores ) , motto= ( en, "Rather die free than subjected in peace") , anthem=( en, "Anthem of the Azores") , image_map=Locator_map_of_Azores_in_EU.svg , map_alt=Location of the Azores within the European Union , map_caption=Location of the Azores wi ...

Madeira Islands ) , anthem = ( en, "Anthem of the Autonomous Region of Madeira") , song_type = Regional anthem , image_map=EU-Portugal_with_Madeira_circled.svg , map_alt=Location of Madeira , map_caption=Location of Madeira , subdivision_type=Sovereign st ...

, and

Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; es, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Mo ...

from 400 to 1200 metres elevation. Trees of the genera '' Apollonias'' (

), ''

Ocotea ''Ocotea'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Lauraceae. Many are evergreen trees with lauroid leaves. There are over 520 species currently accepted within the genus, distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical areas of ...

'' (

), ''

Persea ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. ...

'' (

), '' Clethra'' ( Clethraceae), '' Dracaena'' (

Ruscaceae Nolinoideae is a monocot subfamily of the family Asparagaceae in the APG III system of 2009. It used to be treated as a separate family, Ruscaceae s.l. The family name is derived from the generic name of the type genus, ''Nolina''. The subfa ...

), and '' Picconia'' (

Oleaceae Oleaceae, also known as the olive family, is a taxonomic family of flowering shrubs, trees, and a few lianas in the order Lamiales, It presently comprises 28 genera, one of which is recently extinct.Peter S. Green. 2004. "Oleaceae". pages ...

) are characteristic.Madeira Laurel Forest
Madeira Wind Birds 2005 The Garajonay National Park, on the island of

La Gomera La Gomera () is one of Spain's Canary Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. With an area of , it is the third smallest of the eight main islands of this archipelago. It belongs to the province of Santa Cruz de Ten ...

and the Laurisilva in the

Madeira Island Madeira is a Portuguese island, and is the largest and most populous of the Madeira Archipelago. It has an area of , including Ilhéu de Agostinho, Ilhéu de São Lourenço, Ilhéu Mole (northwest). As of 2011, Madeira had a total population of ...

were designated

World Heritage sites A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. I ...

in 1986 and 1999, respectively. They are considered the best remaining examples of the Atlantic laurel forest, due to their intact nature. The paleobotanical record of the island of Madeira reveals that laurisilva forests have existed on this island for at least 1.8 million years. Around 50 million years ago, during the

Paleocene The Paleocene, ( ) or Palaeocene, is a geological epoch that lasted from about 66 to 56 million years ago (mya). It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek ''pal ...

, Europe took the form of a set of large islands spread through what was the

Tethys Sea The Tethys Ocean ( el, Τηθύς ''Tēthús''), also called the Tethys Sea or the Neo-Tethys, was a prehistoric ocean that covered most of the Earth during much of the Mesozoic Era and early Cenozoic Era, located between the ancient continent ...

. The climate was wet and

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

with monsoon summer rains. Trees of the laurel and

family ( oaks with lauroid-shape leaves and

) were common along several species of ferns. Around the

Eocene The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name ''Eocene'' comes from the Ancient Greek (''ēṓs'', " ...

, the planet began cooling, ultimately leading to the

glaciations. This progressively deteriorated the Paleotropical flora of Europe, which went extinct in the late

Pliocene The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58Ocotea ''Ocotea'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Lauraceae. Many are evergreen trees with lauroid leaves. There are over 520 species currently accepted within the genus, distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical areas of ...

''), or in other continents (e.g. ''

'', ''

Liquidambar ''Liquidambar'', commonly called sweetgum (star gum in the UK), gum, redgum, satin-walnut, or American storax, is the only genus in the flowering plant family Altingiaceae and has 15 species. They were formerly often treated in Hamamelidaceae. ...

'') and some adapted to the cooler and drier climate of Europe and persisted as relicts in places with high mean annual precipitation or in particular river basins, such as sweet bay ''(

)'' and European holly ''(

Ilex aquifolium ''Ilex aquifolium'', the holly, common holly, English holly, European holly, or occasionally Christmas holly, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aquifoliaceae, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest As ...

)'', which are fairly widespread around the Mediterranean basin. Descendants of these species can be found today in Europe, throughout the Mediterranean, especially in the

Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...

and the southern

Black Sea Basin The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Geor ...

. The most important is ivy, a climber or vine that is well represented in most of Europe, where it spread again after the glaciations. The Portugal laurel ('' Prunus lusitanica'') is the only tree that survives as a relict in some Iberian riversides, especially in the western part of the peninsula. In other cases, the presence of Mediterranean laurel (''

'') provides an indication of the previous existence of laurel forest. This species survives natively in

Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria ...

Algeria ) , image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Algiers , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , religi ...

Tunisia ) , image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa , image_map2 = , capital = Tunis , largest_city = capital , ...

Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' ( Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...

Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, In recognized minority languages of Portugal: :* mwl, República Pertuesa is a country located on the Iberian Peninsula, in Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Macaronesian ...

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wit ...

, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands. The myrtle spread through North Africa. Tree heath ''(Erica arborea)'' grows in southern Europe, but without reaching the dimensions observed in the temperate evergreen forest of Macaronesia or North Africa. The broad-leaved ''

Rhododendron ponticum ''Rhododendron ponticum'', called common rhododendron or pontic rhododendron, is a species of ''Rhododendron'' native to the Iberian Peninsula in southwest Europe and the Caucasus region in northern West Asia. Description ''R. ponticum'' is a d ...

baeticum'' and/or ''

Rhamnus frangula ''Frangula alnus'', commonly known as alder buckthorn, glossy buckthorn, or breaking buckthorn, is a tall deciduous shrub in the family Rhamnaceae. Unlike other "buckthorns", alder buckthorn does not have thorns. It is native to Europe, northern ...

baetica'' still persist in humid microclimates, such as stream valleys, in the provinces of

Cádiz Cádiz (, , ) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia. Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, ...

and Málaga in

, in the Portuguese

Serra de Monchique The Serra de Monchique (Monchique Range) is a chain of mountains in the western part of the Algarve region of Portugal, about 20 km inshore. The chain's highest point is the peak of Fóia, at 902 m. 774 m high Picota is another notable pea ...

, and the Rif Mountains of

. The Parque Natural de Los Alcornocales has the biggest and best preserved relicts of Laurisilva in

Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...

. Although the Atlantic laurisilva is more abundant in the Macaronesian archipelagos, where the weather has fluctuated little since the

Tertiary Tertiary ( ) is a widely used but obsolete term for the geologic period from 66 million to 2.6 million years ago. The period began with the demise of the non- avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, at the start ...

, there are small representations and some species contribution to the oceanic and Mediterranean ecoregions of Europe,

Asia minor Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The ...

and west and north of Africa, where microclimates in the coastal mountain ranges form inland "islands" favorable to the persistence of laurel forests. In some cases these were genuine islands in the Tertiary, and in some cases simply areas that remained ice-free. When the

Strait of Gibraltar The Strait of Gibraltar ( ar, مضيق جبل طارق, Maḍīq Jabal Ṭāriq; es, Estrecho de Gibraltar, Archaism, Archaic: Pillars of Hercules), also known as the Straits of Gibraltar, is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to ...

reclosed, the species repopulated toward the Iberian Peninsula to the north and were distributed along with other African species, but the seasonally drier and colder climate, prevented them reaching their previous extent. In Atlantic Europe, subtropical vegetation is interspersed with taxa from Europe and North Africa in bioclimatic enclaves such as the Serra de Monchique,

Sintra Sintra (, ) is a town and municipality in the Greater Lisbon region of Portugal, located on the Portuguese Riviera. The population of the municipality in 2011 was 377,835, in an area of . Sintra is one of the most urbanized and densely populat ...

, and the coastal mountains from Cadiz to

Algeciras Algeciras ( , ) is a municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain belonging to the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located in the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula, near the Strait of Gibraltar, it is the largest city on the Bay of Gibraltar ...

. In the Mediterranean region, remnant laurel forest is present on some islands of the

Aegean Sea The Aegean Sea ; tr, Ege Denizi (Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος: "Egéo Pélagos", Turkish: "Ege Denizi" or "Adalar Denizi") is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans an ...

, on the

Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, ...

coast of Iran and Turkey, including the ''

'' and true ''laurus'' forests, associated with '' Prunus laurocerasus'', and conifers such as ''

Taxus baccata ''Taxus baccata'' is a species of evergreen tree in the family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the famil ...

'', ''

Cedrus atlantica ''Cedrus atlantica'', the Atlas cedar, is a species of tree in the pine family Pinaceae, native to the Rif and Atlas Mountains of Morocco ( Middle Atlas, High Atlas), and to the Tell Atlas in Algeria.Gaussen, H. (1964). Genre ''Cedrus'' ...

'', and ''

Abies pinsapo ''Abies pinsapo'', the Spanish fir, is a species of tree in the family Pinaceae, native to southern Spain and northern Morocco. Related to other species of Mediterranean firs, it appears at altitudes of in the Sierra de Grazalema in the Provi ...

''. In Europe the laurel forest has been badly damaged by timber harvesting, by fire (both accidental and deliberate to open fields for crops), by the introduction of exotic animal and plant species that have displaced the original cover, and by replacement with arable fields, exotic timber plantations, cattle pastures, and

golf course A golf course is the grounds on which the sport of golf is played. It consists of a series of holes, each consisting of a tee box, a fairway, the rough and other hazards, and a green with a cylindrical hole in the ground, known as a "cup". The ...

s and tourist facilities. Most of the

biota Biota may refer to: * Biota (ecology), the plant and animal life of a region * Biota (plant), common name for a coniferous tree, ''Platycladus orientalis'' * Biota, Cinco Villas, a municipality in Aragon, Spain * Biota (band), a band from Color ...

is in serious danger of extinction. The laurel forest flora is usually strong and vigorous and the forest regenerates easily; its decline is due to external forces.

Laurel forest ecoregions of Macaronesia

* Azores temperate mixed forests * Canary Islands dry woodlands and forests * Madeira evergreen forests

Nepal

In the Himalayas, in Nepal, subtropical forest consists of species such as '' Schima wallichii'', '' Castanopsis indica'', and '' Castanopsis tribuloides'' in relatively humid areas. Some common forest types in this region include ''Castanopsis tribuloides'' mixed with ''

Schima wallichi ''Schima'' is a genus of evergreen trees belonging to the tea family, Theaceae. The genus inhabits warm temperate to subtropical climates across southern and southeastern Asia, from the eastern Himalaya of Nepal and eastern India across Indochi ...

Rhododendron ''Rhododendron'' (; from Ancient Greek ''rhódon'' "rose" and ''déndron'' "tree") is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are nativ ...

'' spp., '' Lyonia ovalifolia,

'', and '' Quercus glauca''; ''Castanopsis''-Laurales forest with '' Symplocas'' spp.; '' Alnus nepalensis'' forests; '' Schima wallichii- Castanopsis indica'' hygrophile forest; ''Schima-Pinus'' forest; ''

Pinus roxburghii ''Pinus roxburghii'', commonly known as chir pine or longleaf Indian pine, is a species of pine tree native to the Himalayas. It was named after William Roxburgh. Description ''Pinus roxburghii'' is a large tree reaching with a trunk diamete ...

'' forests with ''

Phyllanthus emblica ''Phyllanthus emblica'', also known as emblic, emblic myrobalan, myrobalan, Indian gooseberry, Malacca tree, or amla, from the Sanskrit आमलकी (āmalakī), is a deciduous tree of the family Phyllanthaceae. Its native range is tropical ...

. Semicarpus anacardium'', '' Rhododendron arboreum'' and '' Lyoma ovalifolia; Schima-

Lagerstroemia parviflora ''Lagerstroemia'' (), commonly known as crape myrtle (also spelled crepe myrtle or crêpe myrtle), is a genus of around 50 species of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs native to the Indian subcontinent, southeast Asia, northern Australia ...

'' forest, '' Quercus lamellosa'' forest with ''

Quercus lanata ''Quercus lanata'', the woolly-leaved oak, is a species of ''Quercus'' native to southern and southeastern Asia, including India (from eastern Uttarakhand to Arunachal Pradesh), Bhutan, Nepal, Indochina (Vietnam, Myanmar, northern Thailand), and ...

'' and '' Quercus glauca''; ''

'' forests with '' Castanopsis hystrix'' and Lauraceae.

Southern India

Laurel forests are also prevalent in the montane rain forests of the Western Ghats in southern

Sri Lanka

Laurel forest occurs in the montane rain forest of

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...

Africa

The

laurel forests describe the plant and animal species common to the mountains of

and the southern Arabian Peninsula. The afromontane regions of Africa are discontinuous, separated from each other by lowlands, resembling a series of islands in distribution. Patches of forest with Afromontane floristic affinities occur all along the mountain chains. Afromontane communities occur above elevation near the equator, and as low as elevation in the Knysna-Amatole montane forests of

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring count ...

. Afromontane forests are cool and humid. Rainfall is generally greater than , and can exceed in some regions, occurring throughout the year or during winter or summer, depending on the region. Temperatures can be extreme at some of the higher altitudes, where snowfalls may occasionally occur. In Subsaharan Africa, laurel forests are found in the Cameroon Highlands forests along the border of

Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of G ...

and

, along the East African Highlands, a long chain of mountains extending from the

Ethiopian Highlands The Ethiopian Highlands is a rugged mass of mountains in Ethiopia in Northeast Africa. It forms the largest continuous area of its elevation in the continent, with little of its surface falling below , while the summits reach heights of up to ...

around the

African Great Lakes The African Great Lakes ( sw, Maziwa Makuu; rw, Ibiyaga bigari) are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. They include Lake Victoria, the second-largest fresh water lake in the ...

, in the Highlands of

, and in the montane zone of the São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón forests. These scattered highland laurophyll forests of Africa are similar to one another in species composition (known as the

flora), and distinct from the flora of the surrounding lowlands. The main species of the Afromontane forests include the broadleaf canopy trees of genus ''

Beilschmiedia ''Beilschmiedia'' is a genus of trees and shrubs in family Lauraceae. Most of its species grow in tropical climates, but a few of them are native to temperate regions, and they are widespread in tropical Asia, Africa, Madagascar, Australia ...

'', with '' Apodytes dimidiata'', ''

Ilex mitis ''Ilex mitis'' (commonly called Cape holly, African holly, waterboom or umDuma) is a tall, dense, evergreen tree that is indigenous to Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. It makes an excellent fast-growing hedge for gardens - growing tall, str ...

'', ''

Nuxia congesta ''Nuxia congesta'', commonly known as brittle-wood, is a species of tree in the Stilbaceae family, with an extensive range in the Afrotropics. The species is named ''congesta'' for its dense inflorescences. Range The species is native to Eswat ...

'', '' N. floribunda'', '' Kiggelaria africana'', ''

Prunus africana ''Prunus africana'', the African cherry, has a wide distribution in Africa, occurring in montane regions of central and southern Africa and on the islands of Bioko, São-Tomé, Grande Comore, and Madagascar. It can be found at above sea level. I ...

'', '' Rapanea melanophloeos'', '' Halleria lucida'', ''

Ocotea bullata ''Ocotea bullata'', (stinkwood or black stinkwood, af, Stinkhout, xh, Umhlungulu, zu, Umnukane) is a species of flowering tree native to South Africa. It produces very fine and valuable timber which was formerly much sought after to make fur ...

'', and ''

Xymalos monospora ''Xymalos monospora'' (plant family Monimiaceae), commonly known as lemonwood, is a species of evergreen tree native to Africa, the only species in the genus ''Xymalos''. It is an Afromontane endemic, and can be found from 900 to 2700 meters elev ...

'', along with the emergent conifers '' Podocarpus latifolius'' and '' Afrocarpus falcatus''. Species composition of the Subsaharan laurel forests differs from that of Eurasia. Trees of the Laurel family are less prominent, limited to ''

'' or ''

'' due to exceptional

biological Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary ...

and paleoecological interest and the enormous

biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic ('' genetic variability''), species ('' species diversity''), and ecosystem ('' ecosystem diversity' ...

mostly but with many endemic species, and the members of the beech family (Fagaceae) are absent. Trees can be up to tall and distinct strata of emergent trees, canopy trees, and shrub and herb layers are present. Tree species include: Real Yellowwood ('' Podocarpus latifolius''), Outeniqua Yellowwood ('' Podocarpus falcatus''), White Witchhazel ('' Trichocladus ellipticus''), '' Rhus chirendensis'', ''

Curtisia dentata ''Curtisia dentata'' (commonly known as the Assegai tree or Cape lancewood, af, Assegaai, xh, Umgxina, zu, Umagunda) is a flowering tree from Southern Africa. It is the sole species in genus ''Curtisia'', which was originally classed as a typ ...

'', '' Calodendrum capense'', '' Apodytes dimidiata'', '' Halleria lucida'', ''

'', '' Kiggelaria africana'', '' Nuxia floribunda'', ''

'', and ''

''. Shrubs and climbers are common and include: Common Spikethorn (''

Maytenus heterophylla ''Gymnosporia heterophylla'', the common spike-thorn, is a small, hardy, deciduous African tree up to 5m tall, occurring in rocky places with a wide distribution from Ethiopia, the Sudan and the Congo, south to the Cape Province and west to Ango ...

''), Cat-thorn (''

Scutia myrtina ''Scutia myrtina'' is a species of plant in the family Rhamnaceae. It is commonly known as cat-thorn. Description ''Scutia myrtina'' is a variable plant that may grow as a shrub or tree of 2-10 m tall with trunk diameter to 30 cm or ...

''), Numnum (''

Carissa bispinosa ''Carissa'' is a genus of shrubs or small trees native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Australia and Asia. Until recently about 100 species were listed, but most of them have been relegated to the status of synonyms or assigne ...

''), '' Secamone alpinii'', ''

Canthium ciliatum ''Canthium'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. They are shrubs and small trees. The leaves are deciduous and the stems are usually thorny. Distribution ''Canthium'' species are predominantly found in Southeast Asia, espe ...

'', ''

Rhoicissus tridentata ''Rhoicissus tridentata'' is a climbing plant in the family Vitaceae The Vitaceae are a family of flowering plants, with 14 genera and around 910 known species, including common plants such as grapevines (''Vitis'' spp.) and Virginia creeper (' ...

'', '' Zanthoxylum capense'', and ''

Burchellia bubalina ''Burchellia'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. The genus contains only one species, viz. ''Burchellia bubalina'', which is endemic to southern Africa: the Cape Provinces, KwaZulu-Natal and the Northern Province ...

''. In the undergrowth grasses, herbs and ferns may be locally common: Basketgrass (''

Oplismenus hirtellus ''Oplismenus hirtellus'' (commonly known as basket grass) is a flowering perennial plant from the family Poaceae that can be found on every continent in the world except Antarctica, growing mostly in coastal tropic and subtropic regions as we ...

''), Bushman Grass (''

Stipa dregeana ''Stipa'' is a genus of around 300 large perennial hermaphroditic grasses collectively known as feather grass, needle grass, and spear grass. They are placed in the subfamily Pooideae and the tribe Stipeae, which also contains many species form ...

'' var. ''elongata''), Pigs-ears ('' Centella asiatica''), ''

Cyperus albostriatus ''Cyperus albostriatus'' is a species of sedge that is native to southern parts of Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 mill ...

'', '' Polypodium polypodioides'', ''

Polystichum tuctuosum ''Polystichum'' is a genus of ferns in the family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Dryopteridoideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). The genus has about 500 species and has a cosmopolitan distribution. The ...

'', ''

Streptocarpus rexii ''Streptocarpus rexii'' is a South African plant in the family Gesneriaceae, occurring widely from the southern Cape along the coastal hills, mountains, wooded ravines and valleys, and moist forests of the east coast, through Natal as far north ...

'', and '' Plectranthus'' spp. Ferns, shrubs and small trees such as Cape Beech ('' Rapanea melanophloeos'') are often abundant along the forest edges.

USA Southeast States

According to the recent study by Box and Fujiwara (Evergreen Broadleaved Forests of the Southeastern United States: Preliminary Description), laurel forests occur in patches in the southeastern United States from southeast

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the East Coast of the United States, Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography an ...

southward to

Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, a ...

, and west to

Texas Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...

, mostly along the coast and coastal plain of the Gulf and south Atlantic coast. In the southeastern United States, evergreen

Hammock (ecology) Hammock is a term used in the southeastern United States for stands of trees, usually hardwood, that form an ecological island in a contrasting ecosystem. Hammocks grow on elevated areas, often just a few inches high, surrounded by wetlands tha ...

(i.e. topographically induced forest islands) contain many laurel forests. These laurel forests occur mostly in moist depression and floodplains, and are found in moist environments of the

Mississippi river The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it ...

basin to southern

Illinois Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Roc ...

. In many portions of the coastal plain, a low-lying mosaic topography of white sand, silt, and

limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms wh ...

(mostly in

), separate these laurel forests. Frequent fire is also thought to be responsible for the disjointed geography of laurel forests across the coastal plain of the southeastern United States. Despite being located in a humid climate zone, much of the broadleaf Laurel forests in the Southeast USA are semi-

in character. The semi-sclerophyll character is due (in part) to the sandy soils and often periodic semi-arid nature of the climate. As one moves south into central Florida, as well as far southern Texas and the Gulf Coastal margin of the southern United States, the sclerophyll character slowly declines and more tree species from the tropics (specifically, the Caribbean and

Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...

) increase as the temperate species decline. As such, the southeastern laurel forests gives way to a mixed landscape of tropical savanna and

tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equatori ...

. There are several different broadleaved evergreen canopy trees in the laurel forests of the southeastern United States. In some areas, the evergreen forests are dominated by species of Live oak (''

Quercus virginiana ''Quercus virginiana'', also known as the southern live oak, is an evergreen oak tree endemic to the Southeastern United States. Though many other species are loosely called live oak, the southern live oak is particularly iconic of the Old Sou ...

''), Laurel oak ('' Quercus hemisphaerica''), southern magnolia (''

Magnolia grandiflora ''Magnolia grandiflora'', commonly known as the southern magnolia or bull bay, is a tree of the family Magnoliaceae native to the Southeastern United States, from Virginia to central Florida, and west to East Texas. Reaching in height, it is a ...

''), red bay ('' Persea borbonia''), cabbage palm (''

Sabal palmetto ''Sabal palmetto'' (, '' SAY-bəl''), also known as cabbage palm, cabbage palmetto, sabal palm, blue palmetto, Carolina palmetto, common palmetto, Garfield's tree, and swamp cabbage, is one of 15 species of palmetto palm. It is native to the Sou ...

''), and sweetbay magnolia (''

Magnolia virginiana ''Magnolia virginiana'', most commonly known as sweetbay magnolia, or merely sweetbay (also laurel magnolia, swampbay, swamp magnolia, white bay, or beaver tree), is a member of the magnolia family, Magnoliaceae. It was the first magnolia to be ...

''). In several areas on the barrier islands, a stunted '' Quercus geminata'' or mixed ''Q. geminata'' and ''Quercus virginiana'' forest dominates, with a dense evergreen understory of scrub palm '' Serenoa repens'' and a variety of vines, including '' Bignonia capreolata'', as well as ''

Smilax ''Smilax'' is a genus of about 300–350 species, found in the tropics and subtropics worldwide. In China for example about 80 are found (39 of which are endemic), while there are 20 in North America north of Mexico. They are climbing flow ...

'' and ''

Vitis species ''Vitis'' (grapevine) is a genus of 79 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus is made up of species predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, b ...

. '' Gordonia lasianthus'', ''

Ilex opaca ''Ilex opaca'', the American holly, is a species of holly, native to the eastern and south-central United States, from coastal Massachusetts south to central Florida, and west to southeastern Missouri and eastern Texas. Description ''Ilex opac ...

'' and '' Osmanthus americanus'' also may occur as canopy co-dominant in coastal dune forests, with '' Cliftonia monophylla'' and '' Vaccinium arboreum'' as a dense evergreen understory (Box and Fujiwara 1988). The lower

shrub layer Stratification in the field of ecology refers to the vertical layering of a habitat; the arrangement of vegetation in layers. It classifies the layers (sing. ''stratum'', pl. ''strata'') of vegetation largely according to the different heights to w ...

of the evergreen forests is often mixed with other evergreen species from the palm family ('' Rhapidophyllum hystrix''), bush palmetto (''

Sabal minor ''Sabal minor'', commonly known as the dwarf palmetto, is a small species of palm. It is native to the deep southeastern and south-central United States and northeastern Mexico. It is naturally found in a diversity of habitats, including maritime ...

''), and saw palmetto ('' Serenoa repens''), and several species in the Ilex family, including ''

Ilex glabra ''Ilex glabra'', also known as Appalachian tea, dye-leaves, evergreen winterberry, gallberry, and inkberry, is a species of evergreen holly native to the coastal plain of eastern North America, from coastal Nova Scotia to Florida and west to ...

'', Dahoon holly, and Yaupon holly. In many areas, ''

Cyrilla racemiflora ''Cyrilla racemiflora'', the sole species in the genus ''Cyrilla'', is a flowering plant in the family Cyrillaceae, native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Americas, from the southeastern United States (coastal areas from southeaster ...

'', '' Lyonia fruticosa'', wax myrtle ''

Myrica ''Myrica'' is a genus of about 35–50 species of small trees and shrubs in the family Myricaceae, order Fagales. The genus has a wide distribution, including Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America, and missing only from Aust ...

'' is present as an evergreen understory. Several species of ''

Yucca ''Yucca'' is a genus of perennial shrubs and trees in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae. Its 40–50 species are notable for their rosettes of evergreen, tough, sword-shaped leaves and large terminal panicles of white or whitish ...

'' and ''

Opuntia ''Opuntia'', commonly called prickly pear or pear cactus, is a genus of flowering plants in the cactus family Cactaceae. Prickly pears are also known as ''tuna'' (fruit), ''sabra'', '' nopal'' (paddle, plural ''nopales'') from the Nahuatl word ...

'' are native as well to the drier sandy coastal scrub environment of the region, including '' Yucca aloifolia'', '' Yucca filamentosa'', ''

Yucca gloriosa ''Yucca gloriosa'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, native to the southeastern United States. Growing to , it is an evergreen shrub. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental for its architectural qualities, and has repo ...

'', and ''

Opuntia stricta ''Opuntia stricta'' is a species of large cactus that is endemic to the subtropical and tropical coastal areas of the Americas, especially around the Caribbean. Common names include erect prickly pear and nopal estricto (Spanish). The first desc ...

''.

USA ancient California

During the

Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recent" ...

, oak-laurel forests were found in Central and Southern

California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the ...

. Typical tree species included oaks ancestral to present-day California oaks, as well as an assemblage of trees from the Laurel family, including '' Nectandra'', ''

'', ''

'', and ''

Umbellularia ''Umbellularia californica'' is a large hardwood tree native to coastal forests and the Sierra foothills of California, and to coastal forests extending into Oregon. It is endemic to the California Floristic Province. It is the sole species in t ...

''. Only one native species from the Laurel family (Lauraceae), '' Umbellularia californica,'' remains in California today. There are however, several areas in Mediterranean California, as well as isolated areas of southern Oregon that have evergreen forests. Several species of evergreen ''Quercus'' forests occur, as well as a mix of evergreen scrub typical of

Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate ''Cs'') is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the ...

s. Species of '' Notholithocarpus'', ''

Arbutus menziesii ''Arbutus menziesii'' or Pacific madrone (commonly madrone or madrona in the United States and arbutus in Canada), is a species of broadleaf evergreen tree in the family Ericaceae, native to the western coastal areas of North America, from Bri ...

'', and ''Umbellularia californica'' can be canopy species in several areas.

Central America

The laurel forest is the most common

Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...

n temperate evergreen cloud forest type. They are found in mountainous areas of southern

Mexico Mexico ( Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guate ...

and almost all Central American countries, normally more than above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the Laurel family, and species of ''

Weinmannia ''Weinmannia'' is a genus of trees and shrubs in the family Cunoniaceae. It is the largest genus of the family with about 150 species. It is also the most widespread genus, occurring in Central and South America including the Caribbean, Madagasc ...

'', ''

Drimys ''Drimys'' is a genus of about eight species of woody evergreen flowering plants, in the family Winteraceae. The species are native to the Neotropics, ranging from southern Mexico to the southern tip of South America. They are primitive dicots ...

'', and ''

''. The cloud forest of

Sierra de las Minas Sierra (Spanish for " mountain range" and " saw", from Latin ''serra'') may refer to the following: Places Mountains and mountain ranges * Sierra de Juárez, a mountain range in Baja California, Mexico * Sierra de las Nieves, a mountain rang ...

, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with

Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean Sea, Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to ...

. In

the

s are found in the border zone with Honduras, and most were cleared to grow

coffee Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is the most popular hot drink in the world. Seeds of ...

. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the

Mombacho Mombacho is a stratovolcano in Nicaragua, near the city of Granada. It is high. The Mombacho Volcano Nature Reserve is one of 78 protected areas of Nicaragua. Mombacho’s last eruption occurred in 1570. There is no historical knowledge of earl ...

volcano in Nicaragua. In Costa Rica there are laurisilvas in the "Cordillera de

Tilarán Tilarán is a small town and a district in Guanacaste Province in Costa Rica. It is the seat of the Tilarán Canton located in the hills overlooking the west shore of Lake Arenal. It is connected by road to El Silencio, and by the 142 road down th ...

" and Volcán Arenal, called Monteverde, also in the

Cordillera de Talamanca The Cordillera de Talamanca is a mountain range that lies in the southeast half of Costa Rica and the far west of Panama. Much of the range and the area around it is included in La Amistad International Park, which also is shared between the two ...

Laurel forest ecoregions in Mexico and Central America

* Central American montane forests *

Chiapas montane forests The Chiapas montane forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion in southern Mexico and extending into western Guatemala. It includes the montane tropical forests on the northern and northeastern slopes of the Chiapas Highlands. Geo ...

Chimalapas montane forests The Chimalapas montane forests is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion in southern Mexico. It includes the montane tropical forests of the Chimalapas region on the boundary of Chiapas and O ...

* Oaxacan montane forests * Talamancan montane forests * Veracruz montane forests

Tropical Andes

The

Yungas The Yungas ( Aymara ''yunka'' warm or temperate Andes or earth, Quechua ''yunka'' warm area on the slopes of the Andes) is a bioregion of a narrow band of forest along the eastern slope of the Andes Mountains from Peru and Bolivia, and extends i ...

are typically evergreen forests or jungles, and multi-species, which often contain many species of the laurel forest. They occur discontinuously from

Venezuela Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in ...

to northwestern

including in

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

, Colombia,

Ecuador Ecuador ( ; ; Quechuan languages, Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar language, Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechuan ...

, and

Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...

, usually in the Sub-Andean Sierras. The forest relief is varied and in places where the Andes meet the Amazon, it includes steeply sloped areas. Characteristic of this region are deep ravines formed by the rivers, such as that of the

Tarma River '') , pushpin_map = Peru , coordinates = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = , subdivision_type1 = Region , subdivision_name1 = Junín , subdivision_type2 = Province , ...

descending to the San Ramon Valley, or the

Urubamba River The Urubamba River or Vilcamayo River (possibly from Quechua ''Willkamayu'', for "sacred river") is a river in Peru. Upstream it is called Vilcanota River (possibly from Aymara ''Willkanuta'', for "house of the sun"). Within the La Convención ...

as it passes through

Machu Picchu Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel located in the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru on a mountain range.UNESCO World Heritage Centre. It is located in the Machupicchu District within Urubamba Province above the Sacred Valley, whi ...

. Many of the Yungas are degraded or are forests in recovery that have not yet reached their

climax vegetation In scientific ecology, climax community or climatic climax community is a historic term for a community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, ha ...

Southeastern South America

The laurel forests of the region are known as the ''Laurisilva Misionera'', after Argentina's

Misiones Province Misiones (, ''Missions'') is one of the 23 provinces of Argentina, located in the northeastern corner of the country in the Mesopotamia region. It is surrounded by Paraguay to the northwest, Brazil to the north, east and south, and Corrientes ...

. The

Araucaria moist forests The Araucaria moist forests, officially classified as mixed ombrophilous forest (Portuguese: "Floresta Ombrófila Mista") in Brazil, are a montane subtropical moist forest ecoregion. The forest ecosystem is located in southern Brazil and northeas ...

occupy a portion of the highlands of southern Brazil, extending into northeastern Argentina. The forest canopy includes species of Lauraceae (''

Ocotea pretiosa ''Ocotea odorifera'' is a species of plant in the family Lauraceae. It is an evergreen tree in the genus ''Ocotea''. It is commonly known as Brazilian sassafras or American cinnamon; though it is not a true sassafras nor a true cinnamon, these ...

'', '' O. catharinense'' and '' O. porosa''), Myrtaceae ('' Campomanesia xanthocarpa''), and Leguminosae ('' Parapiptadenia rigida''), with an emergent layer of the conifer Brazilian Araucaria (''

Araucaria angustifolia ''Araucaria angustifolia'', the Paraná pine, Brazilian pine or candelabra tree (, or ), is a critically endangered species in the conifer genus '' Araucaria''. Although the common names in various languages refer to the species as a "pine", it d ...

'') reaching up to in height. The subtropical Serra do Mar coastal forests along the southern coast of Brazil have a tree canopy of Lauraceae and Myrtaceae, with emergent trees of Leguminaceae, and a rich diversity of

bromeliad The Bromeliaceae (the bromeliads) are a family of monocot flowering plants of about 80 genera and 3700 known species, native mainly to the tropical Americas, with several species found in the American subtropics and one in tropical west Africa ...

s and trees and shrubs of family Melastomaceae. The inland

Alto Paraná Atlantic forests The Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, also known as the Paraná-Paraíba interior forests, is an ecoregion of the tropical moist forests biome, and the South American Atlantic Forest biome. It is located in southern Brazil, northeastern Argentina, ...

, which occupy portions of the Brazilian Highlands in southern Brazil and adjacent parts of Argentina and Paraguay, are semi-deciduous.

Central Chile

The Valdivian temperate rain forests, or ''Laurisilva Valdiviana'', occupy southern

and

from the Pacific Ocean to the

Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...

between 38° and 45° latitude. Rainfall is abundant, from according to locality, distributed throughout the year, but with some subhumid Mediterranean climate influence for 3–4 months in summer. The temperatures are sufficiently invariant and mild, with no month falling below , and the warmest month below .

Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand

Laurel forest appears on mountains of the coastal strip of New South Wales in Australia,

New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; id, Papua, or , historically ) is the world's second-largest island with an area of . Located in Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is separated from Australia by the wide Torr ...

, New Caledonia,

Tasmania ) , nickname = , image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdi ...

, and

. The laurel forests of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand are home to species related to those in the Valdivian laurel forests, '' Beilschmiedia tawa'' is often the dominant canopy species of the laural genus ''

'' in lowland laurel forests in the

North Island The North Island, also officially named Te Ika-a-Māui, is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but much less populous South Island by the Cook Strait. The island's area is , making it the world's 14th-larges ...

and the northeast of the

South Island The South Island, also officially named , is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand in surface area, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasma ...

, but will also often form the subcanopy in primary forests throughout the country in these areas, with

podocarps Podocarpaceae is a large family of mainly Southern Hemisphere conifers, known in English as podocarps, comprising about 156 species of evergreen trees and shrubs.James E. Eckenwalder. 2009. ''Conifers of the World''. Portland, Oregon: Timber Pr ...

. Genus ''Beilschmiedia'' are trees and shrubs widespread in tropical

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an ...

, Australia,

, the Caribbean, and

as far south as

. In the

Corynocarpus ''Corynocarpus'' is the only genus of plants in the family Corynocarpaceae and includes five species. It is native to New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu. Species # '' Corynocarpus cribbianus'' (F. M. Bailey) L. S. S ...

family, '' Corynocarpus laevigatus'' is sometimes called laurel of New Zealand, while '' Laurelia novae-zelandiae'' belongs to the same genus as ''

Laurelia sempervirens ''Laurelia sempervirens'' is a species of evergreen tree in the family Atherospermataceae (formerly Monimiaceae). Common names include Peruvian nutmeg, tihue or trihue (from the Mapuche language), and Chilean laurel or Chilean sassafras. It ...

''. The tree

niaouli ''Melaleuca quinquenervia'', commonly known as the broad-leaved paperbark, paper bark tea tree, punk tree or niaouli, is a small- to medium-sized tree of the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. It grows as a spreading tree up to tall, with its trunk cov ...

grows in Australia, New Caledonia, and Papua. The

and Northern Australian ecoregions are also closely related.

New Guinea

The eastern end of

Malesia Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the Equator and the boundaries of the Indomalayan and Australasian realms, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Paleotropical Kingdom. It has been given different definitions. ...

, including

and the

Aru Islands The Aru Islands Regency ( id, Kabupaten Kepulauan Aru) is a group of about 95 low-lying islands in the Maluku Islands of eastern Indonesia. It also forms a regency of Maluku Province, with a land area of . At the 2011 Census the Regency had a p ...

of eastern Indonesia, is linked to Australia by a shallow continental shelf, and shares many

marsupial Marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass Marsupialia. All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas. A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a ...

mammal and bird

taxa In biology, a taxon ( back-formation from '' taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular n ...

with Australia. New Guinea also has many additional elements of the Antarctic flora, including southern beech (''

Nothofagus ''Nothofagus'', also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and Australasia (east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Gu ...

'') and

Eucalypt Eucalypt is a descriptive name for woody plants with capsule fruiting bodies belonging to seven closely related genera (of the tribe Eucalypteae) found across Australasia: ''Eucalyptus'', '' Corymbia'', '' Angophora'', '' Stockwellia'', '' Allo ...

s. New Guinea has the highest mountains in

, and vegetation ranges from tropical lowland forest to

tundra In physical geography, tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. The term ''tundra'' comes through Russian (') from the Kildin Sámi word (') meaning "uplands", "treeless mo ...

. The highlands of New Guinea and

New Britain New Britain ( tpi, Niu Briten) is the largest island in the Bismarck Archipelago, part of the Islands Region of Papua New Guinea. It is separated from New Guinea by a northwest corner of the Solomon Sea (or with an island hop of Umboi the D ...

are home to montane laurel forests, from about elevation. These forests include species typical of both Northern Hemisphere laurel forests, including ''

,'' and Lauraceae, and Southern Hemisphere laurel forests, including Southern Beech ''

'', ''

Araucaria ''Araucaria'' (; original pronunciation: .ɾawˈka. ɾja is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Araucariaceae. There are 20 extant species in New Caledonia (where 14 species are endemic, see New Caledonian ''Araucaria ...

'',

Podocarp Podocarpaceae is a large family of mainly Southern Hemisphere conifers, known in English as podocarps, comprising about 156 species of evergreen trees and shrubs.James E. Eckenwalder. 2009. ''Conifers of the World''. Portland, Oregon: Timber Pre ...

s, and trees of the Myrtle family (

). New Guinea and Northern Australia are closely related. Around 40 million years ago, the Indo-Australian tectonic plate began to split apart from the ancient supercontinent Gondwana. As it collided with the

Pacific Plate The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate first came into existence 190 million years ago, at the triple junction between the Farallon, Phoenix, and I ...

on its northward journey, the high mountain ranges of central

emerged around 5 million years ago.Frith, D.W., Frith, C.B. (1995). Cape York Peninsula: A Natural History. Chatswood: Reed Books Australia. Reprinted with amendments in 2006. . In the lee of this collision zone, the ancient rock formations of what is now

Cape York Peninsula Cape York Peninsula is a large peninsula located in Far North Queensland, Australia. It is the largest unspoiled wilderness in northern Australia.Mittermeier, R.E. et al. (2002). Wilderness: Earth’s last wild places. Mexico City: Agrupación ...

remained largely undisturbed.

= Laurel forest ecoregions of New Guinea

= The WWF identifies several distinct montane laurel forest ecoregions on New Guinea, New Britain, and New Ireland.Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). ''Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment''. Washington, DC: Island Press. . * Central Range montane rain forests * Huon Peninsula montane rain forests *

New Britain–New Ireland montane rain forests The New Britain-New Ireland montane rain forests is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, tropical moist forest ecoregion in Papua New Guinea. The ecoregion includes the mountain rain forests on the islands of New Britain and New Ire ...

* Northern New Guinea montane rain forests *

Vogelkop montane rain forests The Vogelkop montane rain forests is a tropical moist forest ecoregion in western New Guinea. The ecoregion covers the mountains of western New Guinea's Bird's Head and Bomberai peninsulas. Geography The ecoregion includes the montane fores ...

References

External links

{{Authority control Forests Forest ecology Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Plant communities of the Eastern United States Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the United States Afromontane Palearctic ecoregions Nearctic ecoregions Atlantic Forest