Historical context
In 1943, Albert Hofmann discovered the hallucinogenic effects of LSD that led to an altered state of consciousness. In 1947, Gion Condrau and Arthur Stoll observed that people diagnosed as " psychotics" had a stronger tolerance for LSD and that the effects of the drug were similar to the symptoms expressed by psychotics themselves. In the late 1940s, English researcher Mayer-Gross found connections between schizophrenia and behaviors produced by LSD administration. In 1950, AK Busch and WC Johnson determined LSD's stimulative effects and first made the connection of LSD and its potential use in psychotherapy. In 1951, De Giacomo confirmed that when subjects with schizophrenia were given large dosages of LSD by mouth, they experienced a state ofPsychedelic research at Spring Grove
Experiments at Spring Grove Research Department began in the 1950s at the Spring Grove State Hospital; however, the first official Spring Grove Experiment began in 1963. Over the course of the experiments, over 700 people were treated with LSD; no more than six to eight patients were treated at a time.Preliminary experiments
The first psychedelic experiment at the Spring Grove research department took place in 1955. A small team of researchers including Albert Kurland, Louis S. Cholden, and Charles Savage set out to analyze the reaction following the administration of LSD to patients with chronic schizophrenia. In an attempt to conduct this study with scientific proof, the researchers administered LSD using a double blind procedure. By the end of the first study, the researchers determined that it was not possible to administer LSD using a double blind, because it was obvious to the researchers who had been given LSD. It was, however, found that LSD was unique in its effects on consciousness and unlike other drugs, resulted in rapid tolerance in patients. They determined the effects of LSD to include intense hallucinations and illusions. This work established the foundation for future experiments.The Spring Grove Experiment: alcoholism and LSD
In 1963, after observing the initial effects of LSD, the first official experiment included in the "Spring Grove Experiment" series began. This experiment was performed on 69 alcoholic patients. Enthusiastic and hopeful about the possible results of LSD treatment, a team of researchers under Dr. Albert Kurland, Director of Research at State of Maryland Department of Mental Hygiene at the time, Dr. Charles Savage, Director of Research at Spring Grove Hospital, Dr. Shaffer, and Dr. Sanford Unger performed experiments to test LSD with psychotherapy as treatment for alcoholic patients. This work was backed by the State Hospital Alcoholic Rehabilitation Unit. The findings of this experiment were published four years later in 1967. According to the experimenters themselves, the rationale for using psychedelics to treat alcoholic patients is in the "clinical picture" presented in the features of alcoholic patients. Various personality types such as "neurotic, psychopathic, and schizoid" were thought to have a vulnerability that led to their addiction to alcohol. These individuals were perceived as having a weakened ability to "handle psychological stress, tensions, and frustrations." They also believed that LSD would allow psychiatrists to open memories and emotions to restore and alter the brain and mind, but only under certain conditions. The Spring Grove experiment was conducted in Cottage 13, a building on the Spring Grove State Hospital grounds. The environment in Cottage 13 was constructed so that it emitted a positive and optimistic atmosphere to ensure that the patients did not have a negative experience while taking the LSD treatment. Even the sounds, smells, and objects in Cottage 13 were carefully conditioned. Before treatment, the patients were screened after mental breakdowns to determine if they were eligible for LSD treatment. Then they were given a microscopic dose of LSD in Cottage 13. During the 14-hour treatment, the patients underwent psychotherapy so that psychiatrists could attempt to identify underlying conflicts. In addition to the psychotherapy, patients also underwent psychiatric tests so that researchers could determine other effects of LSD, such as changes in IQ scores. Those who observed the experiments in Cottage 13 encouraged the continuation of it. One such individual was Dr. John Buckman, who claimed that "the treatment procedure seemed to be returning the patients to the human race." The results show that no patients were harmed. After six months, 33% of patients remained abstinent after LSD treatment, as opposed to the previous statistic of 12% under conventional therapy. In 1965, theExpansion
The success of the trials resulted in experiments that sought to determine if LSD could assist with the treatment of other disorders including neuroticism and heroin dependence. In 1966, experiments expanded to treat those with terminal cancers. This type of experimentation arose at the Spring Grove clinic after one of the researchers became a human subject in the same clinic where she worked. Gloria underwent the radical mastectomy procedure to treat her breast cancer, and was subsequently diagnosed with liver cancer. Her resulting depression and anxiety were analogous to psychiatric symptoms, similar to those expressed by patients in the Spring Grove Clinic. After noticing the apparent effectiveness of LSD therapy on alcoholics, Gloria requested that an LSD treatment session be administered on herself. There had been existing studies on the chemotherapeuticPsychedelic psychotherapy
LSD was intravenously injected into patients, and at times was delivered through the form of a pill or clear liquid. In the early experiments, LSD was administered in a single large dose along with a specialized environment, eyeshades, headphones, and selected music. A preparatory period allowed a trained therapist to deeply explore the background of the patient. Doses ranged from 250 to 800 micrograms per session, which would last from 8–12 hours. This method was called the "mind-manifesting approach." By the late 1970s, a more extensive method was developed, called "the extended psychodelytic paradigm," as named by Stanislav Grof and discussed by Yensen & Dryer in their Spring Grove Experiment paper. This involved the administration of several high doses, an increased number of therapeutic sessions, and a greater emphasis on personal dynamics between therapist and patient. It was not expected that positive results would occur with pure drug administration. Psychedelic therapy involves the use of a hallucinogenic, perception-altering drugs coupled with psychotherapy to treat patients psychologically. The goal of the procedure was to unearth internal conflicts by administering LSD and then use therapy to resolve and work through these emerging latent conflicts. "Mystical peaks" experienced by LSD-treated patients would often give the patient insights and new outlooks on life. Therapy would be used to apply these insights to the individual's personal life. Musical therapists eventually joined staffing. The main objective of therapy was to provide emotional support and companionship to the patient.Patients' experiences
In the original 1955 experiment conducted on patients with schizophrenia, there were 20 subjects that received LSD. The experiences and reactions of these subjects were categorized under 3 characteristics covert, which signified a subtle or delayed response; intensification, which pushed the patient's existing symptoms to extremes; and reversal, which occurred when patients assumed a state opposite to his or her original symptoms. The following are accounts of patient responses during several experiments conducted at Spring Grove: In the 1955 trials on people with chronic schizophrenia:A second patient in the 1955 study who was normally aloof, laughing, and idle became uncharacteristically serious 30 minutes after drug administration. She called the doctor by his correct name for the first time, saying:In the 1965 CBS documentary, the story of Arthur King, a man experiencing alcoholism and being treated with LSD and psychotherapy, was highlighted. Some of the alcoholic patients who underwent LSD and psychotherapy treatment at Spring Grove felt happier after the treatment and had no more desire to drink. One patient, Arthur King, was admitted into Spring Grove State Hospital as an alcoholic. He underwent the treatment. Afterwards, he reported that he had no more desire to drink—he went back to school and later became an accountant. Years later when he was interviewed, he said that the LSD treatment turned his life around. In an interview conducted by Richard Yensen & Donna Dryer, Arthur King stated the following concerning treatment: The peak experience was defined by the following guidelinesShortcomings
The first shortcoming determined early on in experimentation was that no adequateControversy and resistance
Resistance from the scientific community to psychedelic therapy is thought to have resulted from certain restrictive paradigms about how studies in psychiatry and psychology should be carried out, and which ones are valid. The existing concept supported single solutions to mental health issues, and prescribing pharmaceutical drugs to biologically suppress symptoms of diseases rather than root causes. This focus on pharmaceuticals existed partially because the large amounts of government funding given to pharmaceutical companies. Controversy on the use of psychedelics as medical treatment was particularly significant considering this time period (1970) constituted the early stages of the declared " war on drugs." This, along with sensationalized negative LSD cases disseminated by the media, led to a declined attitude toward the usage of LSD as treatment. Other factors such as the accusation that scientists were mismanaging money, and the concern of LSD causing chromosome damage in 1969 led to further negative attitudes toward the study.Termination
The studies at Spring Grove State Hospital ended in 1976. Several factors led to the termination of the Spring Grove Experiment. In 1971, Walter Pahnke, the director of clinical science and leader of the Spring Grove research team at the time, died. His successor had no background in psychedelic research and therefore did not have the experience or drive to continue the experimentation being led by Pahnke before he died. The Maryland Psychiatric Research Center was accused of improper use of public money and not engaging in real treatment that would be beneficial to the public. When legislation was passed resulting in the detraction of funding from state hospitals, animosity grew between the more privileged researchers and the hospital employees. This discouraged workers from getting involved in experiments, adding to the growing negative atmosphere around LSD research. In addition, controversy surrounding the use of LSD in experiments surfaced. Among these controversies include reports of a suicide in Project MKUltra and treatment with LSD without informed consent at Edgewood Arsenal in the late 1970s. Because the arsenal had ties to the University of Maryland, there was dramatic pressure to discontinue all research involving psychedelics as treatment. The accumulation of these reports, along with general reservations about medicalizing what the media portrayed as strictly deleterious, led to the termination of the psychedelic experiments on human subjects at Spring Grove.Legacy
By 1976, more than 700 patients were treated with psychedelic drugs. This produced positive yet equivocal results. Most benefitted, and a minority did not display any response, however, there is no awareness of long-term complications. By the 1970s, LSD was no longer recognized as having a medical use. It was instead seen as having a great potential for abuse and addiction. In the 1990s, even when Dr. Yensen and Dr. Kurland receivedReferences
{{reflist, 30em History of mental health in the United States Lysergic acid diethylamide