''Shukranīti'' (–), also known as ''Shukranītisara'' (–) and ''Shukracharya's System of Morals'', is a part of the Dharmasastra. It is a treatise on government, instructing how to use political theory to uphold morality. The code is authored by Shukracharya, also known as Usanas, and was claimed to have been written during the

Vedic period The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, between the e ...

. However, modern historians claim the composition could date as early as the 4th century AD during the

Gupta period The Gupta Empire was an Indian empire during the classical period of the Indian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of the northern Indian ...

, or as late as a 19th-century forgery. The term Niti is derived from the Sanskrit word which translates to ''To Lead''. Shukra-Niti focuses on morality, which it states to be vital for the overall well being of the people and the state (Rajya). Thus, the ruler must regulate the economic, social, and political aspects of human activity. According to the ''Shukranīti'', the main responsibilities of the king should be towards the protection of his subjects and punishment of the offenders, and such actions cannot be enacted without a guideline (Niti). According to Shukracharya: a person can live without grammar, logic, and

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six orthodox (Āstika and nāstika, ''āstika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...

, but cannot do in absence of Niti, and describes it as an essential aspect required for maintaining social order in the society.

History

Claims of much later period of origin

Lallanji Gopal disputes the origin of Shukra-Niti to the Vedic period and claims the work was written far later. This is due to the mention of guns, gunpowder, and cannons in the work. Modern historians argue that although some incendiary arrows were used in ancient India, there were no mentions of fire-arms using gunpowder in those texts. Historically, guns were introduced to India by the Portuguese in the early 16th century and later used in the

first Battle of Panipat The First Battle of Panipat, on 21 April 1526 was fought between the invading forces of Babur against Ibrahim Khan Lodi, the List of sultans of Delhi, Sultan of Delhi, in North India. Babur's forces, em ...

. Hence, according to them, the origin of the ''Shukranīti'' is attributed to the 16th century AD. Similarly, J C. Ray places the origin to 11th century AD based on the use of the word

Yavana The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue Yavana in Sanskrit, were used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers. "Yona" and "Yavana" are transliterations of the Greek word for "Ionians" (), who were probably the first Gre ...

and

Mleccha Mleccha () is a Sanskrit term referring to those of an incomprehensible speech, foreigners or invaders deemed distinct and separate from the Vedic tribes. In Vedic Brahmanical discourse, the term is used to refer to foreigners (anāryans) who ...

in the ShukraNiti. According to him, the term Yavana or Mleccha refers to Greeks and Muslims respectively during the 11th century, as by then Muslims such as

Mahmud of Ghazni Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin (; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi (), was Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, ruling from 998 to 1030. During his reign and in medieval sources, he is usuall ...

had spread to most parts of India. Some historians, based on the reference made to various classifications of punishment meted out to the offenders and on other regulations mentioned in the ''Shukranīti'', conclude that the work was modern in approach, hence a nineteenth-century composition.

Claims of origin from Vedic period

Dr. Gustav Oppert, who was the first to compile and edit the original work of Shukracharya's ''Shukranīti'' in Sanskrit, placed the origin of the work to the Vedic period. According to some scholarly interpretations, the ''Shukranīti'' is frequently mentioned in Hindu epics like

Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...

and

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...

and was originally written by

Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...

in a voluminous 100,000 chapters, which later was reduced to a readable one thousand chapters by Shukracharya. Dr. Oppert in his other work on ancient India further elaborates on the much contentious issue on the mention of the use of firearms in ''Shukranīti''. He provides archaeological evidences from the ancient temple carvings in India, where soldiers are depicted carrying and in some cases firing firearms. Thus, he claims that the use of firearms in ''Shukranīti'' is authentic and establishes the use of firearms, gunpowder in India since the ancient Vedic period. This theory is further supported by some modern historians, in which the use of gunpowder, firearms, and cannons are described as weapons used in warfare in some Vedic literature. On the issue of antiquity, R. G Pradhan observes, given that the more recent work , the Kamandaka Nitisara, draws from the ''Shukranīti'', the age of the ShukraNiti must precede it. Similarly, other historians, on the basis that Kautilyas Arthashastra opens with salutations to Shukracharya and Brhaspati, conclude that the ShukraNiti has to be older than the Arthashastra and place the origin of Shukracharya's work to be of 4th-century BC.

Overview

The ''Shukranīti'' as a comprehensive codebook lays out guidelines in both political and non-political aspects required to maintain social order in the state. The political part of the book addresses guidelines for a king, the council of ministers, the justice system, and international laws. The non-political part addresses morality, economics, architecture, and other social and religious laws. These laws are elaborately enshrined into five chapters in this epic. :*The first chapter details the duties and functions of the king. :*The second elaborates on the duties of the crown prince and other administrators of the state. :*The third chapter puts forth the general rules of morality. :*The fourth is the largest chapter in the work, which is divided into seven parts. ::*The first subsection describes the maintenance of the treasury. ::*The second addresses social customs and institutions in the kingdom. ::*The third subsection addresses the arts and sciences. ::*The fourth lays out the guidelines for the characteristics required for a king's friend. ::*The fifth subsection describes the functions and duties of the king. ::*The sixth addresses the maintenance and security of forts. ::*The seventh subsection lays out the functions and composition of the army. :*The concluding chapter five deals with miscellaneous and supplementary rules on morality as laid down in Shastras to promote the overall welfare of the people and the state.

Relevance

Though the book has centuries of history attached to it, the contents of it are still relevant in current-day politics, especially in the Indian context. Shukracharya lays out the virtues and qualities required in the king and crown prince, which would make a liberal and democratic leader. Most of the verses of chapter I and II are considered relevant in current day administrations of any democratic state in the world. For example, in chapter 2, the codebook states that the king should not take any policy decisions unilaterally without consulting his council of ministers, and that a ruler who arbitrarily makes decisions will be alienated from his kingdom and his people. Similarly, the Shukranīti places people as the ultimate source of a king's power. In chapter-I, it states that the ruler a servant of the people. One of the most discussed topics relevant to current times is the stress given on

Karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...

. Shukracharya states that one becomes Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya or Shudra based on fundamental concepts like ones character ( Guna) and deeds (

). The book further advises the king to appoint his subordinates in any post irrespective of his

jāti ''Jāti'' is the term traditionally used to describe a cohesive group of people in the Indian subcontinent, like a caste, sub-caste, clan, tribe, or a religious sect. Each Jāti typically has an association with an occupation, geography or trib ...

References

Bibliography

* * * * {{citation, first=Vandana , last=Nagar, title=Kingship in the Śukra-nīti, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4sdAAAAMAAJ, year=1985, publisher=Pushpa Prakashan Sanskrit literature Sanskrit encyclopedias Vedic period Ancient Indian law Legal history of India Dharmaśāstra