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Chinese folk religion plays a dynamic role in the lives of the
overseas Chinese Overseas Chinese people are Chinese people, people of Chinese origin who reside outside Greater China (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan). As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese. As of 2023, there were 10.5 milli ...
who have settled in the countries of this geographic region, particularly
Burmese Chinese Chinese Burmese, also Sino-Burmese or Tayoke (), are Burmese citizens of Han Chinese ethnicity. They are a group of overseas Chinese born or raised in Myanmar (Burma). Burmese Chinese are a well established ethnic group and are well represen ...
, Singaporean Chinese,
Malaysian Chinese Malaysian Chinese, Chinese Malaysians, or Sino-Malaysians are Malaysians, Malaysian citizens of Chinese people, Chinese ethnicity. They form the second-largest ethnic group in Malaysia, after the Malaysian Malays, Malay majority, and , const ...
,
Thai Chinese Thai Chinese (also known as Chinese Thais, Sino-Thais) are persons of Chinese people, Chinese descent in Thailand. Thai Chinese are the largest mixed group in the country and the largest overseas Chinese community in the world with a popul ...
, Indonesian Chinese and Hoa. Some
Chinese Filipino Chinese Filipinos (sometimes referred as Filipino Chinese or Chinoy/Tsinoy in the Philippines) are Filipinos of Chinese descent with ancestry mainly from Fujian, but are typically born and raised in the Philippines. Chinese Filipinos are one ...
s also still practice some Chinese traditional religions, besides
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
of either
Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
or
Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
, with which some have also varyingly syncretized traditional Chinese religious practices.
Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
, the
ethnic religion In religious studies, an ethnic religion or ethnoreligion is a religion or belief associated with notions of heredity and a particular ethnicity. Ethnic religions are often distinguished from universal religions, such as Christianity or Islam ...
of
Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...
, "Shenism" was especially coined referring to its Southeast Asian expression; another Southeast Asian name for the religion is the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
expression Satya Dharma (literally "Truth Law"). The Chinese folk religion of Southeast Asia is markedly typified by the interaction with Malay indigenous religions ( Malaysian and Indonesian folk religion), the adoption of gods of
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
derivation, such as
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
,
Ganesha Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...
and
Hanuman Hanuman (; , ), also known as Maruti, Bajrangabali, and Anjaneya, is a deity in Hinduism, revered as a divine ''vanara'', and a devoted companion of the deity Rama. Central to the ''Ramayana'', Hanuman is celebrated for his unwavering devotio ...
, and also
syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the ...
with
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
in the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
. The philosophical forms of
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
and
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
are followed, and organised forms of the Chinese folk faith, such as the Church of Virtue,
Yiguandao Yiguandao / I-Kuan Tao (), meaning the Consistent Way or Persistent Way, is a Chinese salvationist religions, Chinese salvationist religious sect that emerged in the late 19th century, in Shandong, to become China's most important redemptive ...
and Zhenkongism, have taken significant foothold among Southeast Asian Chinese. In
Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...
about 11% of the total population is Taoist, including the 14.4% of
Chinese Singaporeans Chinese Singaporeans, Singaporean Chinese or Sino-Singaporeans () are Singaporeans of Han Chinese ancestry. Chinese Singaporeans constitute 75.9% of the Singaporean resident population according to the official census, making them the large ...
identifying as Taoists. In
Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...
, around 10% of Chinese Malaysians practice Chinese folk religions, corresponding to around 1% of the country's population. However, numbers may be significantly larger since many folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" for census purposes. In
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
, Taosu Agung Kusumo, leader of the Majelis Agama Tao Indonesia, claims there are 5 million Taoist followers in the country as of 2009.


By country


Indonesia

The Chinese folk religion of the
Chinese Indonesians Chinese Indonesians (), or simply ''Orang Tionghoa'' or ''Tionghoa'', are Indonesians whose ancestors arrived from China at some stage in the last eight centuries. Chinese Indonesians are the fourth largest community of Overseas Chinese in th ...
is named "Confucianism" or "Satya Dharma", and
Chinese temple Chinese temple architecture refer to a type of structures used as place of worship of Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, or Chinese folk religion, where people revere ethnic Chinese gods and ancestors. They can be classified as: * '' mi� ...
s are called ''klenteng'' or ''vihara'' in the
Indonesian language Indonesian (; ) is the official language, official and national language of Indonesia. It is a standard language, standardized variety (linguistics), variety of Malay language, Malay, an Austronesian languages, Austronesian language that has ...
. It is officially recognised by the government as ''Agama Khonghucu'' or ''Religion of
Confucius Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
'', which was chosen because of the political condition in
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
before the 1998 end of the rule of
Suharto Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian Officer (armed forces), military officer and politician, and dictator, who was the second and longest serving president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 to 1998. His 32 years rule, cha ...
, who had forbidden all forms of Chinese religions; Indonesian Chinese could embrace only the five officially recognised religions, and many of them eventually converted to Buddhism or Christianity. Chinese Indonesians had their culture and religious rights restored only after the fourth president of Indonesia,
Abdurrahman Wahid Abdurrahman Wahid ( ; né ad-Dakhil, 7 September 1940 – 30 December 2009), more colloquially known as Gus Dur (), was an Indonesian politician and Islam in Indonesia, Islamic Kyai, religious leader who served as the fourth president of Indone ...
, issued a regulation that recognised "Confucianism" among the legal religions of the country. He said that: The first precept of '' Pancasila'' (the Five Basic Principles of the Indonesian state) stipulates belief in the one and only
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
. The Confucian philosophy is able to fulfill this, for Confucius mentioned only one God in his teaching, the
Heaven Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common Religious cosmology, religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deity, deities, angels, souls, saints, or Veneration of the dead, venerated ancestors are said to originate, be throne, ...
or
Shangdi Shangdi (), also called simply Di (), is the name of the Chinese Highest Deity or "Lord Above" in the Chinese theology, theology of the classical texts, especially deriving from Shang dynasty, Shang theology and finding an equivalent in the lat ...
. The Heaven possess the characteristic of ''Yuan Heng Li Zhen'', or ''Omnipresent'', ''Omnipotent'', ''Omnibenevolent'', ''Just''.Bidang Litbang PTITD/Matrisia Jawa Tengah. 2007. ''Pengetahuan Umum Tentang Tri Dharma'', First Edition (July 2007). Publisher: Benih Bersemi, Semarang,
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
.
The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!" (VIII, xix, tr. Legge 1893:214)
Another movement in Indonesia is the ''Tridharma'' (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
: "law of the three"), syncretising elements of different religions, the Chinese
three teachings In Chinese philosophy, the ''three teachings'' (; , Chữ Hán: 三教) are Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. The learning and the understanding of the three teachings are traditionally considered to be a harmonious aggregate within Chinese ...
amongst others.Tsuda Koji. ''"Chinese Religion" in Modern Indonesia: Focusing on the Trend Toward Systematization in the Post-Soeharto Era''. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. After the fall of Suharto rule it is undergoing a process of systematisation of doctrines and rituals. Tridharma temples always consist of three main rooms: the front room for
Tian Tian () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and cosmology. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their highest god as '' Shangdi'' or ''Di'' (, ...
or
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
, the middle for the main deity of the temple, and the back room for the Founders of three religions and their pantheon:
Confucius Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
,
Laozi Laozi (), also romanized as Lao Tzu #Name, among other ways, was a semi-legendary Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosopher and author of the ''Tao Te Ching'' (''Laozi''), one of the foundational texts of Taoism alongside the ''Zhuangzi (book) ...
, and
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
. Several big Chinese population cities such as
Medan Medan ( , ) is the capital city, capital and largest city of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of North Sumatra. The nearby Strait of Malacca, Port of Belawan, and Kualanamu International Airport make Medan a regional hub and multi ...
,
Batam Batam, officially the City of Batam (, not to be confused with ''Batam Kota'', a kecamatan, district within this city), is the largest List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city in the Indonesian province of Riau Islands. The city administra ...
, Bagansiapiapi and Singkawang have significant numbers of Chinese folk religion followers. There are also many Taoist associations in Indonesia. Some local deities which are not known outside Indonesia includes Tan Hu Cin Jin from Banyuwangi-
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
, Tan Tik Siu from Tulungagung, Tan Oei Ji Sian Seng or Gi Yong Kong from
Rembang Rembang Regency () is a Regencies of Indonesia, regency () on the extreme northeast coast of Central Java Province, on the island of Java (bordering on the Java Sea) in Indonesia. The regency covers an area of 1,036.70 km2 on Java, and it had ...
-Lasem, and Tey Hai Cin Jin who is worshiped in the coastal cities of East and Middle Java.


Malaysia

In
Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...
the
Malaysian Chinese Malaysian Chinese, Chinese Malaysians, or Sino-Malaysians are Malaysians, Malaysian citizens of Chinese people, Chinese ethnicity. They form the second-largest ethnic group in Malaysia, after the Malaysian Malays, Malay majority, and , const ...
constitute a large segment of the population, mostly adherents of
Mahayana Buddhism Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
. The Chinese traditional religion has a relatively significant registered following in the states of
Sarawak Sarawak ( , ) is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state of Malaysia. It is the largest among the 13 states, with an area almost equal to that of Peninsular Malaysia. Sarawak is located in East Malaysia in northwest Borneo, and is ...
(6%) and
Penang Penang is a Malaysian state located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia along the Strait of Malacca. It has two parts: Penang Island, where the capital city, George Town, is located, and Seberang Perai on the Malay Peninsula. Th ...
(5%). Many other folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" in government surveys. Chinese temples are called ''tokong'' in the
Malaysian language Malaysian Malay () or Malaysian ()endonymically known as Standard Malay () or simply Malay (, abbreviated to BM)is a standardized form of the Malay language used in Malaysia and also used in Singapore and Brunei (as opposed to the variety u ...
. The Chinese folk religion was brought into Malaysia by Chinese emigrants in the 15th century, with small settlements and a
Temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...
that were established in
Malacca Malacca (), officially the Historic State of Malacca (), is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state in Malaysia located in the Peninsular Malaysia#Other features, southern region of the Malay Peninsula, facing the Strait of Malacca ...
by
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
traders, but it was not until the 19th century that there was a mass migration of Chinese. They built
temples A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...
dedicated to their
Deities A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines ''deity'' as a God (male deity), god or god ...
, schools, and cemeteries for those who died. The Chinese migration during the tin and gold mining days, which were a result of high demand for these products, prompted the need for temples for practices and religious rituals. Clan organisations in the Chinese immigrant society were important, where surnames, dialect, locality and trade mattered. The
Cantonese Cantonese is the traditional prestige variety of Yue Chinese, a Sinitic language belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family. It originated in the city of Guangzhou (formerly known as Canton) and its surrounding Pearl River Delta. While th ...
,
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
, Teochew and
Hakka The Hakka (), sometimes also referred to as Hakka-speaking Chinese, or Hakka Chinese, or Hakkas, are a southern Han Chinese subgroup whose principal settlements and ancestral homes are dispersed widely across the provinces of southern China ...
, respectively, formed lineage associations and Kongsi, such as the Khoo Kongsi and Eng Chuan Tong Tan Kongsi, which are grassroots supporters of Chinese overseas communities. A prominent cult is that of Tua Pek Kong ( ''Dabo Gong''), which has incorporated the cult of the Na Tuk Kong ( ''Nadu Gong'') and Datuk Keramat of local Malay origin. Other native and Thai Deities have been incorporated into the pantheon.


Thailand

Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
has a large population of
Thai Chinese Thai Chinese (also known as Chinese Thais, Sino-Thais) are persons of Chinese people, Chinese descent in Thailand. Thai Chinese are the largest mixed group in the country and the largest overseas Chinese community in the world with a popul ...
, people of Chinese or partial Chinese origin (up to 14% of the population of the country). Most of those who follow Buddhism have been integrated into the
Theravada Buddhist ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' (anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or ''Dhamma'' in th ...
tradition of the country, with only a negligible minority still practicing
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
. However, many others have retained the Chinese folk religions and Taoism.Tatsuki Kataoka. ''Religion as Non-religion: The Place of Chinese Temples in Phuket, Southern Thailand''. In ''Southeast Asian Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2012, pp. 461–485. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University. Despite the large number of followers and temples, and although they are practiced freely, these religions have no state recognition, their temples are not counted as places of worship, and their followers are counted as "Theravada Buddhists" in officially released religious figures. In Thailand, Chinese temples are called ''sanchao'' (). As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Chinese folk religion of Thailand has developed local features, including the worship of local gods. Major Chinese festivals such as the
Nian A ''nian'' beast () is a beast in Chinese mythology. According to Chinese mythology, the ''nian'' lives under the sea or in the mountains. The Chinese character ''nian'' more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that re ...
, Zhongqiu and Qingming are widely celebrated, especially in
Bangkok Bangkok, officially known in Thai language, Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estim ...
,
Phuket Phuket (; , , or ''Tongkah'') is one of the Southern Thailand, southern Provinces of Thailand, provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand. It consists of the island of Phuket, List of islands of Thailand, the country's largest island, and another 3 ...
, and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations. The Chinese in the city of
Phuket Phuket (; , , or ''Tongkah'') is one of the Southern Thailand, southern Provinces of Thailand, provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand. It consists of the island of Phuket, List of islands of Thailand, the country's largest island, and another 3 ...
are noted for their nine-day vegetarian festival between September and October. During the festive season, devotees will abstain from meat, and
mortification of the flesh Mortification may refer to: *Mortification (theology), theological doctrine *Mortification of the flesh, religious practice of corporal mortification *Mortification in Roman Catholic teaching, Roman Catholic doctrine of mortification *Extreme emb ...
by Chinese mediums is also commonly seen, along with rites devoted to the worship of Tua Pek Kong. Such traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture.


Singapore

Sizeable number of
Chinese Singaporeans Chinese Singaporeans, Singaporean Chinese or Sino-Singaporeans () are Singaporeans of Han Chinese ancestry. Chinese Singaporeans constitute 75.9% of the Singaporean resident population according to the official census, making them the large ...
practice
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
, which in the city state is used as a
synecdoche Synecdoche ( ) is a type of metonymy; it is a figure of speech that uses a term for a part of something to refer to the whole (''pars pro toto''), or vice versa (''totum pro parte''). The term is derived . Common English synecdoches include '' ...
for broader Chinese folk religion. Taoists in Singapore worship many Deities that frequently are embodied by historical ancestors and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. They also worship some deities of common origins, notably the
Jade Emperor In the Chinese mythology, myths and Chinese folk religion, folk religion of Chinese culture, the Jade Emperor or Yudi is one of the representations of the Primordial Divinity (Tai Di), primordial god. In Taoist theology, he is the assistant of ...
, Xuan Tian Shang Di, Lord Guan, and Tian Shang Sheng Mu. Other deities that are venerated and frequently kept at home as auspicious images include the Fu, Lu, and Shou. Caishen is also popularly venerated by many Chinese businessmen. However, certain deities are worshipped by a particular dialect group, and may not share a common devotion with other Chinese dialect groups. One interesting example is Qing Shui Zhu Shi (祖師公); this particular deity is mainly worshipped by the Hokkien, particularly from
Anxi County () is a county of the prefecture-level city of Quanzhou, in southern Fujian province, People's Republic of China with 1,003,599 inhabitants ( 2020 census). It lies adjacent to and directly north of Xiamen city. Anxi is well known for a number ...
. Buddhist Bodhisattvas like
Guanyin Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...
or Di Zang Wang are popularly worshipped in Singapore. Deities from other ethnicities such as Phra Phrom, Na Tuk Kong (拿督公) or Datuk Keramat are also venerated. Adherents of Taoism or Chinese Folk Religion usually place their main altars/shrines inside their living room. This is more often seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The main Gods/Deities are enshrined at the centre of the top altar, and a tablet dedicated to the Guardians of Earth/ Dizhushen (地主神) is placed at the bottom altar. Ancestral tablets are usually placed beside the statues/images of the main Gods/Deities at the top altar. Often, an
incense burner A censer, incense burner, perfume burner or pastille burner is a vessel made for burning incense or perfume in some solid form. They vary greatly in size, form, and material of construction, and have been in use since ancient times throughout t ...
to burn incense sticks is placed in front of the Gods/Deities, and a separate, smaller incense burner is placed in front of the ancestral tablet. Oil lamps may also be placed at altars, and fruit or flower offerings are also placed in front of the Gods/Deities as offerings. Some families may also have an altar dedicated to the Kitchen God (灶君) inside the kitchen. Adherents usually install a small altar/shrine, painted red and gold, with the words "Heaven Official Bestows Blessings" (天官赐福) written on it outside the house, or simply a small incense burner filled with ash where incense sticks are placed. This is dedicated to Tian Gong (天公)/
Jade Emperor In the Chinese mythology, myths and Chinese folk religion, folk religion of Chinese culture, the Jade Emperor or Yudi is one of the representations of the Primordial Divinity (Tai Di), primordial god. In Taoist theology, he is the assistant of ...
(玉皇大帝) and is the first altar that they will worship. After they have worshipped toward the Heaven representing Tian Gong/Jade Emperor, they will proceed to worship at the main altar to the Gods/Deities, then to the ancestral tablets, and eventually to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen. The smoke emitted from burning incense sticks symbolizes their devotion and prayer, and at times requests to the Gods/Deities.


Philippines

A small number of
Chinese Filipino Chinese Filipinos (sometimes referred as Filipino Chinese or Chinoy/Tsinoy in the Philippines) are Filipinos of Chinese descent with ancestry mainly from Fujian, but are typically born and raised in the Philippines. Chinese Filipinos are one ...
s (2%) continue to practise traditional Chinese religions solely.
Mahayana Buddhism Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
, specifically Chinese
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
,
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
, and ancestral worship (including
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
) are the traditional Chinese beliefs that continue to have adherents among
Chinese Filipino Chinese Filipinos (sometimes referred as Filipino Chinese or Chinoy/Tsinoy in the Philippines) are Filipinos of Chinese descent with ancestry mainly from Fujian, but are typically born and raised in the Philippines. Chinese Filipinos are one ...
s. Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where Chinese Filipinos live, especially in urban areas like
Metro Manila Metropolitan Manila ( ), commonly shortened to Metro Manila and formally the National Capital Region (NCR; ), is the capital region and largest List of metropolitan areas in the Philippines, metropolitan area of the Philippines. Located ...
.most prominently the Buddhist Seng Guan Temple in Tondo, Manila. Veneration of the
Guanyin Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...
(觀音) or
Mazu Mazu or Matsu is a sea goddess in Chinese folk religion, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. She is also known by several other names and titles. Mazu is the deified form of Lin Moniang (), a shamaness from Fujian who is said to ...
(媽祖), known locally in
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
as ''Kuan-im'' (
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
) and ''Ma-cho'' (
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
) respectively, either in its pure form or as a representation of the Mary Mother Of God, is practised by many Chinese Filipinos. For example, Mazu / Ma-cho is sometimes known or identified as ''" Our Lady of Caysasay"'', which is also an emanation of the
Blessed Virgin Mary Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under titles of Mary, mother of Jesus, various titles such as Perpetual virginity ...
. Both are considered emanations of each other, with the images of Our Lady of Antipolo and Our Lady of the Abandoned as additional emanations, as all four are related to water and/or travel. Additionally, Guan Yu is also sometimes known among Chinese Filipinos as ''" Santo Santiago"'' ( St. James) or in Hokkien as "''Te Ya Kong"'' (
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
) or "''Kuan Kong"'' (
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
). Chinese Filipinos have also established indigenous religious denominations like
Bell Church The Bell Church () is a Chinese Filipino indigenous religion, indigenous religious Syncretism, syncretistic organization based in La Trinidad, Benguet, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines. It was led Elias Ng, the Spiritual Leader and Head Administ ...
(钟教), which is a
syncretic Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus ...
religion with an ecumenical and interfaith orientation. There are several prominent Chinese temples like Seng Guan Temple (Buddhist) in
Manila Manila, officially the City of Manila, is the Capital of the Philippines, capital and second-most populous city of the Philippines after Quezon City, with a population of 1,846,513 people in 2020. Located on the eastern shore of Manila Bay on ...
, Ma-Cho Temple ( Mazu worship) in
San Fernando, La Union San Fernando, officially the City of San Fernando (; ), is a component city and the capital of the province of La Union, Philippines. It serves as the regional and administrative center of the Ilocos Region. The city also functions as a hub ...
,
Cebu Taoist Temple Cebu Taoist Temple ( zh, s=宿雾定光宝殿, t=宿霧定光寶殿, p=Sùwù Dìngguāng Bǎodiàn, poj=Siok-bū Tēng-kng Pó-tiān) is a Taoist temple located in Beverly Hills Subdivision of Cebu City, Philippines. History The temple wa ...
in
Cebu City Cebu City, officially the City of Cebu, is a Cities of the Philippines#Legal classification, highly urbanized city in the Central Visayas region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 964,169 people, making ...
, Lon Wa Buddhist Temple in
Davao City Davao City, officially the City of Davao, is a City of the Philippines#Legal classification, highly urbanized city in the Davao Region, Philippines. The city has a total land area of , making it the List of Philippine cities and municipalities ...
, and many more distributed around the country. Around half (40%) of all Filipino Chinese, regardless of religion, still claim to practise '' ancestral worship''. Chinese Filipinos, especially the older generations, have a tendency to pay respects to their deceased ancestors at least once a year, by going to the temple, the local Chinese cemetery or traditional burial grounds, such as the Manila Chinese Cemetery for those in
Metro Manila Metropolitan Manila ( ), commonly shortened to Metro Manila and formally the National Capital Region (NCR; ), is the capital region and largest List of metropolitan areas in the Philippines, metropolitan area of the Philippines. Located ...
, often burning
candle A candle is an ignitable candle wick, wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow, that provides light, and in some cases, a Aroma compound, fragrance. A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time. ...
s,
incense Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonial reasons. It ...
and joss paper money, presenting offerings like certain fruits or fruit juice tetra packs to the deceased, and decorating the tombstones,
mausoleum A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type o ...
s, and ancestral tablets with
joss paper Joss paper, also known as incense papers, are papercrafts or sheets of paper made into burnt offerings common in Chinese ancestral worship (such as the veneration of the deceased family members and relatives on holidays and special occasions). ...
. Chinese Filipino mausoleums or burial grounds frequently have altars for Houtu (后土), where candles and incense are lit. Since most Chinese Filipinos practice
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
, such as
Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
or
Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
, there is also a unique religious
syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the ...
that is found in many Chinese Filipino homes. For Catholic Chinese Filipinos, some have altars bearing Catholic images such as the '' Santo Niño'' (
Child Jesus The Christ Child—also known as Baby Jesus, Infant Jesus, Child Jesus, Divine Child, Divine Infant and the Holy Child—refers to Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ during his early years. The term refers to a period of life of Jesus, Jesus' l ...
) as well as statues of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
and Taoist gods or other deities like the Three Deities in their homes, often decorated with Sampaguita
garland A garland is a decorative braid, knot or wreath of flowers, leaves, or other material. Garlands can be worn on the head or around the neck, hung on an inanimate object, or laid in a place of cultural or religious importance. In contemporary times ...
s. It is not unheard of to venerate the
Blessed Virgin Mary Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under titles of Mary, mother of Jesus, various titles such as Perpetual virginity ...
using joss sticks (Tao and Buddhist incense sticks) and other traditional offerings, much as one would do for Guan Yin or
Mazu Mazu or Matsu is a sea goddess in Chinese folk religion, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. She is also known by several other names and titles. Mazu is the deified form of Lin Moniang (), a shamaness from Fujian who is said to ...
. In general for both Catholic and Protestant Christian Chinese Filipinos, it is normal in many households to have traditional Chinese statues and figurines like the Fat Buddha, the Three Deities, the Lucky Fu(福) Cat, the Money Frog, Chinese couplets, or other such traditional Chinese
paraphernalia Paraphernalia refers to a collection of items or equipment associated with a particular activity, hobby, or lifestyle. The term is often used to describe the tools, accessories, or objects that are used in various fields, such as sports, arts ...
for the purposes of inviting good fortune, luck, and prosperity, while at the same time
praying File:Prayers-collage.png, 300px, alt=Collage of various religionists praying – Clickable Image, Collage of various religionists praying ''(Clickable image – use cursor to identify.)'' rect 0 0 1000 1000 Shinto festivalgoer praying in front ...
to
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
and conducting Bible study in the same household or room and having
Christian symbols Christian symbolism is the use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork or events, by Christianity. It invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. The symbolism of the early Church was characterized by b ...
, Bible verses, and other such Catholic or Protestant Christian
paraphernalia Paraphernalia refers to a collection of items or equipment associated with a particular activity, hobby, or lifestyle. The term is often used to describe the tools, accessories, or objects that are used in various fields, such as sports, arts ...
posted around the household.


Vietnam

Many
Vietnamese people The Vietnamese people (, ) or the Kinh people (), also known as the Viet people or the Viets, are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to modern-day northern Vietnam and Dongxing, Guangxi, southern China who speak Vietnamese language, Viet ...
and
Hoa people The Hoa people, also known as Vietnamese Chinese (Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: ''Người Hoa'', or ) are the citizens and nationals of Vietnam of full or partial Han Chinese ancestry. Chinese migration into Vietnam dates back millennia ...
(Han Chinese of Vietnam) practice Chinese folk religion, Buddhism and
Vietnamese folk religion Vietnamese folk religion () or Đạo Lương (道良) is a group of spiritual beliefs and practices adhered to by the Vietnamese people. About 86% of the population in Vietnam are reported irreligion, irreligious, but are associated with this t ...
syncretically.


Features


Organised traditions

Some organised sects stemming from Chinese practises have been active among Southeast Asian Chinese. They include especially De jiao ("religion of
virtue A virtue () is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be morality, moral, social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "good of humanity" and thus is Value (ethics), valued as an Telos, end purpos ...
"),Chee Beng Tan.
The Development and Distribution of Dejiao Associations in Malaysia and Singapore, A Study on a Religious Organization
'. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Occasional Paper n. 79. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985. (Note: Book review has a typo in the ISBN)
Zhenkong jiao ("Teachings of True Emptiness")Vincent Goossaert, David Palmer. ''The Religious Question in Modern China''. University of Chicago Press, 2011. p. 108 and
Yiguandao Yiguandao / I-Kuan Tao (), meaning the Consistent Way or Persistent Way, is a Chinese salvationist religions, Chinese salvationist religious sect that emerged in the late 19th century, in Shandong, to become China's most important redemptive ...
("Consistent Way").


Southeast Asian Chinese pantheon

The names of the gods are in transcribed Mandarin or certain Chinese dialects spoken by Southeast Asian Chinese populations: * Thin Kong (天公) "Lord of Heaven" also known as the Jade Emperor * Xuan Tian Shang Di (玄天上帝) or Siong Teh Gong (上帝公), Powerful Deity and was known as the Patron Deity of Ming Dynasty * Hou Tu (后土) or Di Mu Niang Niang (地母娘娘), known as Goddess Queen of the Earth * Xi Wang Mu (西王母), an ancient deity and was highly honored * Dou Mu Yuan Jun (斗母元君), Mother Goddess of the Big Dipper or Lady Mother of the Chariot * Kew Ong Yah (九皇爷), Nine Emperor Gods who symbolized the nine stars of the Big Dipper, was known in Malay as "Perayaan Dewa Sembilan Maharaja" * Guan Teh Gong (關帝公) or Guan Sheng Di Jun (關聖帝君) or "Lord Guan" - God of Military, Symbol of Righteousness and Justice, Patron Deity of police, businessmen and secret societies * Kuan Yim Pu Chor (觀音佛祖) or also known as
Avalokiteśvara In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (meaning "the lord who looks down", International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ), also known as Lokeśvara ("Lord of the World") and Chenrezig (in Tibetan), is a Bodhisattva#Bhūmis (stages), tenth-level bodhisattva associ ...
- Goddess of Mercy or Bodhisattva of Compassion * Jiu Tian Xuan Nü (九天玄女) Lady of the Nine Heavens, an ancient Deity and also worshipped as Goddess of War * Ma Zu (媽祖) or Tian Shang Sheng Mu (天上圣母), Goddess of the sea, Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to sea/ocean, also regarded as Patron Deity for Lim (林) Clan * Ong Yah Gong (王爺信仰), Divine Emissaries (代天巡狩) who tour the world of the living on behalf of the Jade Emperor, expelling disease and evil * Qing Shui Zhu Shi (清水祖師) or Cho Su Gong (祖師公), Patron Deity of Anxi County in Quanzhou * Bao Sheng Da Di (保生大帝), Patron Deity of Tong'an District in Xiamen, also worshipped as a Medicinal Deity * Guang Ze Zun Wang (廣澤尊王), Honorific King of Great Compassion, Patron Deity of Nan'an City in Quanzhou * Kai Zhang Sheng Wang (開漳聖王), Patron Deity of Zhangzhou * Tua Pek Kong (大伯公) or Fu De Zheng Shen (福德正神) * Hua Tuo (華佗), was regarded as "divine physician" in Chinese history and worshipped as a Medicinal Deity * Qi Tian Da Sheng (齊天大聖) or Dai Seng Yah (大聖爺), the popular and powerful Monkey God * Seng Ong Yah (城隍爺), Patron Deity of City or City God * Choy Sun Yeh (财神 "Wealth God") * Wen Chang Di Jun (文昌帝君), God of Culture and Literature, Patron Deity of scholars and students * Zhu Sheng Niang Niang (註生娘娘), Goddess of fertility and children * Yue Xia Lao Ren (月下老人), Patron Deity of marriage and love * He-He Er Xian (和合二仙), Immortals of Harmony and Union, associated with happy marriages * Hua Gong Hua Po (花公花婆) Patron Deities and Protector of children * Tai Yang Xing Jun (太陽星君) Sun God * Tai Yin Niang Niang (太陰娘娘) or Chang Er (嫦娥), Moon Goddess, worshipped by female devotees during Mid-Autumn Festival * Tai Sui (太歲) 60 Heavenly Officials who will be in charge of each year during the Chinese sixty years cycle * Fu, Lu, and Shou (福祿壽), Three deities of stars representing auspicious, good life and longevity. * Wu Ying Jiang Jun (五營將軍 The Celestial Generals of Five Directions) * Teh Choo Kong (地主公) "Earth Lord" or Di Zhu Shen (地主神) "God of the Purified Place" * Ho Yah Gong (虎爺公) "Tiger Deity" who guard the temples and was worshipped for protection against bad luck, dangers and enemies * Zao Jun (灶君), Kitchen God and also known as the Stove God * Men Shen (門神), Divine Guardians of doors and gates * Tua Li Yah Pek (大二爺伯), Underworld Deities who are in charge of escorting or arresting the spirits of the dead, also been highly regarded for their brotherhood spirit * Gu Tao Baey Bin (牛頭馬面), Guardians of the Underworld * Jin Qian Bo (金錢伯), Popularly known in English as Uncle Moneybags, who oversees incense money transmission from the living realm to the realm of the dead (Underworld) * She Mian Shen (四面神), also known as Four Faced Deity, who is also known as
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
* Na Tuk Kong (拿督公), also as ''Dato Gong'' or ''Datuk Gong'', related to Datuk Keramat in Malaysian folk religion


Places of worship and practice

Chinese temples in Indonesia and Malaysia are called ''kelenteng'', ''klenteng'', ''tokong'' or ''pekong'' in local
Malay language Malay ( , ; , Jawi alphabet, Jawi: ) is an Austronesian languages, Austronesian language spoken primarily by Malays (ethnic group), Malays in several islands of Maritime Southeast Asia and the Malay Peninsula on the mainland Asia. The lang ...
s, or alternatively ''bio'', the southern Chinese pronunciation of Mandarin ''miao'' (). In Thailand their name is ''sanchao'' (). Items for Chinese religious practices in Southeast Asia are supplied at '' shén liào shāngdiàn'' (神料商店 "shops of goods for the gods").


See also

*
Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
* Taiwanese folk beliefs * Chinese spiritual world concepts *
Nine Emperor Gods Festival The Nine Emperor Gods Festival (; ; ) or Vegetarian Festival or Jay Festival is a nine-day Taoist celebration beginning on the eve of the ninth lunar month of the Chinese calendar, celebrated primarily in Southeast Asian countries such as Malays ...
* Birthday of the Monkey God *
Ancestor worship The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
( Ancestral halls & Ancestral tablet) *
List of Mazu temples This is a list of Mazu temples, dedicated to Mazu (媽祖) also known as Tian Shang Sheng Mu (天上聖母) or Tian Hou (天后) Chinese Goddess of Sea and Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to sea/ocean, also regarded a ...
( Baishatun Mazu Pilgrimage & Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong) * Kwan Tai temples in Hong Kong & Hip Tin temples in Hong Kong * List of City God Temples in China * Chinese temples in Kolkata *
Bell Church The Bell Church () is a Chinese Filipino indigenous religion, indigenous religious Syncretism, syncretistic organization based in La Trinidad, Benguet, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines. It was led Elias Ng, the Spiritual Leader and Head Administ ...
&
Bell Church (temple) The Bell Church () is a Chinese temple architecture, Chinese temple of the Chinese Filipino indigenous religion, indigenous religious Syncretism, syncretistic Bell Church, organization of the same name in La Trinidad, Benguet, La Trinidad, Bengue ...
* Chow Yam-nam (White Dragon King) *
Vietnamese folk religion Vietnamese folk religion () or Đạo Lương (道良) is a group of spiritual beliefs and practices adhered to by the Vietnamese people. About 86% of the population in Vietnam are reported irreligion, irreligious, but are associated with this t ...
* Malaysian folk religion * Burmese folk religion * Tai folk religion *
Diwata ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the Indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associ ...


Notes


References


Further reading

*


External links


Deism of Malaysian Chinese

Zhenkong way

Zhenkong religion
{{Religion topics Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia Chinese folk religion in Asia Religion in Southeast Asia