The Scotia Arc is the

island arc Island arcs are long archipelago, chains of active volcanoes with intense earthquake, seismic activity found along convergent boundary, convergent plate tectonics, tectonic plate boundaries. Most island arcs originate on oceanic crust and have re ...

system forming the north, east and south border of the

Scotia Sea The Scotia Sea is a sea located at the northern edge of the Southern Ocean at its boundary with the South Atlantic Ocean. It is bounded on the west by the Drake Passage and on the north, east, and south by the Scotia Arc, an undersea ridge and is ...

. The northern border, the North Scotia Ridge, comprises (from west to east): Isla de los Estados at the tip of

Tierra del Fuego Tierra del Fuego (, ; Spanish for "Land of Fire", rarely also Fireland in English) is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South America, South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the main is ...

, the Burdwood, Davis, and Aurora Banks; the Shag,

South Georgia Island South Georgia is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean that is part of the British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It lies around east of the Falkland Islands. ...

and Clerke Rocks. The eastern border comprises the volcanic

South Sandwich Islands The South Sandwich Islands () are a chain of uninhabited volcanic islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. They are administered as part of the British Overseas Territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The chain lies in the sub-A ...

flanked by the South Sandwich Trench. The southern border, the South Scotia Ridge, comprises (east to west): Herdman,

Discovery Discovery may refer to: * Discovery (observation), observing or finding something unknown * Discovery (fiction), a character's learning something unknown * Discovery (law), a process in courts of law relating to evidence Discovery, The Discovery ...

, Bruce, Pirie, and Jane Banks; the

South Orkney Islands The South Orkney Islands are a group of List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands, islands in the Southern Ocean, about north-east of the tip of the Antarctic PeninsulaElephant Island. Finally, the

Bransfield Strait Bransfield Strait or Fleet Sea () is a body of water about wide extending for in a general northeast – southwest direction between the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. History The strait was named in about 1825 by James W ...

separates the arc from the

South Shetland Islands The South Shetland Islands are a group of List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands, Antarctic islands located in the Drake Passage with a total area of . They lie about north of the Antarctic Peninsula, and between southwest of the n ...

and

James Ross Island James Ross Island () is a large island off the southeast side and near the northeastern extremity of the Antarctic Peninsula, from which it is separated by Prince Gustav Channel. Rising to , it is irregularly shaped and extends in a north–so ...

flanking the tip of the

Antarctic Peninsula The Antarctic Peninsula, known as O'Higgins Land in Chile and Tierra de San Martin in Argentina, and originally as Graham Land in the United Kingdom and the Palmer Peninsula in the United States, is the northernmost part of mainland Antarctica. ...

. The Scotia Arc surrounds the small Scotia and South Sandwich Plates. The arc is formed by continental fragments that once formed a land bridge between South America and Antarctica, which was once part of the

subduction Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at the convergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Where one tectonic plate converges with a second p ...

margin that still forms the

Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...

. An ancestral arc, which formed a separate subduction system, broke through this land bridge and started to form the Scotia Sea by eastward back-arc extension driven by subduction of the

South American Plate The South American plate is a major tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America as well as a sizable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the African plate, with which it forms the southern part of the Mid ...

(also located east of the Scotia Arc). Today, the Scotia Arc forms a discontinuous link between South America and Antarctica. It is considered a continuation of the Andes, and the antarctic part of that mountain range is called the Antarctandes. The Scotia Arc is also an important barrier between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and therefore for the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

Geology

The formation of the Scotia Arc was initiated by an acceleration in South America's westward migration in the mid-

Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 143.1 to 66 mya (unit), million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era (geology), Era, as well as the longest. At around 77.1 million years, it is the ...

(, Ma) which led to the uplift of the Fuegan

and the then adjacent and embryonic North Scotia Ridge. The uplift of the ridge initiated the eastward migration of the South Georgia microcontinent from Tierra del Fuego towards its current location. In the Late Cretaceous South America started to move west relative to Antarctica. Little changed in the region between the Late Cretaceous and

Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch (geology), epoch of the Paleogene Geologic time scale, Period that extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that defin ...

(90-30 Ma) except for the subduction of the Phoenix Plate on the Pacific margin of the land bridge that still connected South America and Antarctica — what would become the Drake Passage was at this time a cusp on the Pacific side of the land bridge. The

Late Paleocene The Thanetian is, in the International Commission on Stratigraphy, ICS Geologic timescale, the latest age (geology), age or uppermost stage (stratigraphy), stratigraphic stage of the Paleocene epoch (geology), Epoch or series (stratigraphy), Serie ...

to the

Early Eocene In the geologic timescale the Ypresian is the oldest age (geology), age or lowest stage (stratigraphy), stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between , is preceded by the Thanetian Age (part of the Paleocene) and is followed by th ...

(55 Ma) saw rift basin formation in the Fuegan Andes which led to crustal extension: the first sign of separation between the two continents and the formation of the South Scotia Sea and South Scotia Ridge. Spreading in the West Scotia Sea led to the further lengthening of the North Scotia Ridge and South Georgia moving further east. Spreading in the West Scotia Sea also finally led to the rifting of the South Orkney microcontinent from the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. This event initiated the South Scotia Ridge. The banks of the South Scotia Ridge are made of continental crust that rifted off the land bridge 40-30 Ma. The banks on the northern Central Scotia Sea, on the other hand, are volcanic constructs overlaying an oceanic

basement A basement is any Storey, floor of a building that is not above the grade plane. Especially in residential buildings, it often is used as a utility space for a building, where such items as the Furnace (house heating), furnace, water heating, ...

. Parts of this basement form the spreading centre of the separation between South America and Antarctica. Seafloor spreading in the West Scotia Sea continued until 6.6-5.9 Ma. The oldest volcanic activity in the Central and Eastern Scotia Sea, i.e. the first signs of a volcanic arc, has been dated to 28.5 Ma. The South Sandwich Islands fore-arc originated in the Central Scotia Sea and was translated eastward by the

back-arc The back-arc region is the area behind a volcanic arc. In island arc, island volcanic arcs, it consists of back-arc basins of oceanic crust with abyssal zone, abyssal depths, which may be separated by remnant arcs, similar to island arcs. In conti ...

spreading centre in the East Scotia Sea, i.e. the East Scotia Ridge. South Georgia's eastward migration ended about 9 Ma when the microcontinent collided with the Northeast Georgia Rise

large igneous province A large igneous province (LIP) is an extremely large accumulation of igneous rocks, including intrusive ( sills, dikes) and extrusive (lava flows, tephra deposits), arising when magma travels through the crust towards the surface. The format ...

on the South American Plate, north-east of South Georgia. A submerged equivalent to the current South Sandwich Arc was relocated westward by the same spreading centre. After, and probably because of, the collision, the East Scotia Sea spreading centre split the ancestral South Sandwich Arc leaving a remnant arc under the Central Scotia Sea. The collision also produced the rugged

Allardyce Range The Allardyce Range () is a mountain range rising south of Cumberland Bay and dominating the central part of South Georgia, a British Overseas Territories. It extends for from Mount Globus in the northwest to Mount Brooker in the southeast ...

on South Georgia, making the -high range three times higher than the conjugate rocks on Navarino Island in Tierra del Fuego. The driving mechanism behind the formation of the arc, as proposed by , is a mantle return-flow from the Pacific to the Atlantic.

References

Notes

Sources

* * * {{SGSSI Volcanism of Antarctica Island arcs