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The architecture of
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
refers to the architecture of modern Russia as well as the architecture of both the original Kievan Rus’ state, the Russian principalities, and Imperial Russia. Due to the geographical size of modern and imperial Russia, it typically refers to architecture built in European Russia, as well as European influenced architecture in the conquered territories of the Empire. The vernacular architecture stems from wooden construction traditions, and monumental masonry construction started to appear during the Kievan Rus’ era in what is now modern
Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
. After the Mongol invasion of Rus, the Russian architectural trajectory continued in the principalities of Novgorod,
Vladimir-Suzdal Vladimir-Suzdal (russian: Владимирско-Су́здальская, ''Vladimirsko-Suzdal'skaya''), also Vladimir-Suzdalian Rus', formally known as the Grand Duchy of Vladimir (1157–1331) (russian: Владимиро-Су́здальс ...
, Pskov, Muscovy, and the succeeding states of the
Tsardom of Russia The Tsardom of Russia or Tsardom of Rus' also externally referenced as the Tsardom of Muscovy, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter I ...
. Much of the early standing architectural tradition in Russia stems from foreign influences and styles. Among the characteristic styles present in Russian architecture are the Byzantine revival style of the Kievan Rus’ and succeeding principalities’ churches, the Muscovite style, baroque, neoclassical,
eclecticism Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories i ...
, art nouveau, as well as the signature styles of the Soviet period.


Pre-Christian Architecture

Russian architecture is a mix of Eastern Roman and Pagan architecture. Some characteristics taken from the Slavic pagan temples are the exterior galleries and the plurality of towers.


Early Medieval Architecture and the Kievan Rus


Kiev

Under the reign of
Vladimir the Great Vladimir I Sviatoslavich or Volodymyr I Sviatoslavych ( orv, Володимѣръ Свѧтославичь, ''Volodiměrъ Svętoslavičь'';, ''Uladzimir'', russian: Владимир, ''Vladimir'', uk, Володимир, ''Volodymyr''. Se ...
in 988 AD, the Kievan Rus converted to Orthodox Christianity from their previous pagan religions, and the monumental architecture that followed was mainly ecclesiastical in type. According to legend, the conversion to Orthodox Christianity rather than to another religion was due to the beauty of the
Hagia Sophia Hagia Sophia ( 'Holy Wisdom'; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque ( tr, Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi), is a mosque and major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The cathedral was originally built as a Greek Ortho ...
in Constantinople. The architecture style that dominated in this time blended Slavic and Byzantine styles, with predominant churches built in brick and stone with byzantine art forms, initially built by imported Greek and Byzantine masters but adopted by local craftsmen and slightly modified. Findings from twentieth century excavations on the Church of the Tithe, the foundations of the original plan of the church shows evidence of a Byzantine " inscribed cross" plan. This inscribed cross typology borrowed from Byzantine architecture served as the main prototype for the pan of these Kievan masonry churches. As the Byzantine prototype was adapted, it began to take its own style. Differing from the Byzantine churches they were based on, the masonry churches in the Kievan Rus had more pronounced silhouettes, were bulkier, and had smaller windows, providing a more mysterious interior. Large-scale architectural work paused after the death of Vladimir, but resumed c. 1030 under Iaroslav. Under his reign, the cathedral dedicated to St. Sophia, also known as the cathedral of Hagia Sofia, in which the Metropolitan was to be seated for the following 200 years. Excavations have found that the original plan of the church also prescribed to the inscribed-cross typology (the church has been extensively modified since its construction due to it falling into ruin during Mongol rule). A multitude of domes is also present in the church, although it is not clear its stylistic origins (while wooden churches have complex roof designs, a clear derivation has not been established). Inside the church, several of the medieval Kievan mosaics created by Greek masters survive and show a provincial Byzantine style. The construction of the church itself is a form of stone and brick masonry called opus mixtum, which means alternating rows of stone and flat brick, or plinthos, meaning crushed brick in lime mortar. The exterior was not as ornate as the enterior, relying instead on the mass of the building and sported a pink colour, later covered up with white stucco. It is, however, the only structure from this period that mostly maintains its original interior, and thus can be used as an example for the interiors of these early Kievan churches. Meanwhile, in other urban centers across the medieval Rus, masonry church construction also started to appear. As monastery's and urban center's wealth increased, wooden churches started to be replaced by masonry ones. As more churches were constructed, slight modifications were made to the base inscribed cross typology, as well as created a greater emphasis on verticality. Due to the scale of the churches being constructed, interior mosaics and frescos continued being made by imported Byzantine and Greek masters rather than local craftsmen, and thus continued using the Byzantine style. Local contribution to construction, however, meant that modifications were still made, resulting in the Kievan Rus style of ecclesiastical architecture which drew from influences from Bulgaria, Georgia, and Armenia for these modifications to the Byzantine prototype. Many of these churches suffered severe neglect following Mongol invasion, and thus were largely modified in the centuries following.


Novgorod

Following the conversion of the Kievan Rus to christianity under Vladimir's reign, Bishop Joachim of Kherson commissioned Novgorod's first masonry Church (not extant) as well as the original wooden church of St. Sophia. The Byzantine style of churches, which was imported from Kiev, was adapted to a distinctive Novgorodian style through the ecclesiastical constructions commissioned by the princes in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Novgorod's medieval architecture owes its distinctive style to the adaptation of Byzantine and Kievan styles to its local conditions. As there was not a nearby source of surface stone and its brickmaking capabilities was limited in the area, construction of Novgorodian masonry churches were made using a method of masonry using rough-hewn local stone such as limestone with a crushed brick and lime cement, resulting in a pink surface similar to that used in contemporary Kievan churches but with a coarser surface texture. Unlike the cathedral in Kiev, the Novgorodian St Sophia only has five main domes rather than 13 like in Kiev (representing Christ and the twelve apostles). During the twelfth century, the central dome was redone externally to be converted into an onion dome. These
onion dome An onion dome is a dome whose shape resembles an onion. Such domes are often larger in diameter than the tholobate upon which they sit, and their height usually exceeds their width. These bulbous structures taper smoothly to a point. It is a typ ...
s are a distinct feature of Russian architecture. Most likely adopted for its aesthetic qualities, the unique shape of the domes also provide the advantage of preventing the accumulation of snow. While the churches constructed in the twelfth century didn’t rival the Cathedral of St Sophia in scale or complexity, the princes continued their show of power in their architectural projects. The Cathedral of St George of
Yuriev Monastery The St. George's (Yuriev) Monastery (russian: Юрьев монастырь) is usually cited as Russia's oldest monastery. It stands in 5 kilometers south of Novgorod on the left bank of the Volkhov River near where it flows out of Lake Ilmen. T ...
was commissioned in 1119 by Prince
Vsevolod of Pskov Vsevolod Mstislavich Monomakh (russian: Всеволод Мстиславич), the patron saint of the city of Pskov, ruled as Prince of Novgorod in 1117–32, Prince of Pereslavl (1132) and Prince of Pskov in 1137–38. Early life The elde ...
and is another example of one of these princely churches. The architect was known as Master Peter, one of the few architects who have been recorded at this time in Russia. The exterior is characterized by narrow windows and double-recessed niches, which proceed in a rhythm across the façade; the interior walls reach a height of . Its pillars are closely spaced, emphasizing the height of the vaulted ceilings. The interior was covered in frescoes from the prince’s workshops, including some of the rarest Russian paintings of the time. Three more churches show the style of the princely churches created during this time: the Cathedral of St Nicholas in Iaroslav Court (1113), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin at Antoniev Monastery (1117-1119), and the Church of John the Baptist in Petriatin Courty (1127-30). Several characteristics are present in the churches, and they draw a more simplistic form of that of the Cathedral of St Sophia. After the Mongols invaded, Novgorod suffered less than its counterpart Kiev. Construction of masonry churches, however, stalled for several years. After relations with the new Mongol overlords stabilized in the mid to late fourteenth century, there was a revival in architectural style and innovation in Novgorod and a resurgence in masonry church construction. The first of these churches was the Church of St Nicholas at Lipno (1292), located in the southeast of Novgorod. While small in size (10mx10m) it had several features which were novel and used in the masonry churches constructed after. The church was badly damaged during World War II. The following churches of Novgorod (such as the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyina Street, built in 1374), are steep-roofed and roughly carved; and several contain medieval frescoes. The secular architecture of
Kievan Rus' Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of ...
has rarely survived. Until the 20th century only the Golden Gates of
Vladimir Vladimir may refer to: Names * Vladimir (name) for the Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Macedonian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian spellings of a Slavic name * Uladzimir for the Belarusian version of the name * Volodymyr for the Ukr ...
, despite much 18th-century restoration, could be regarded as an authentic monument of the pre-Mongol period. During the 1940s, archaeologist Nikolai Voronin discovered the well-preserved remains of
Andrei Bogolyubsky Andrew I (died 28 June 1174), his Russian name in full, Andrey Yuryevich Bogolyubsky "Andrew made Vladimir the centre of the grand principality and placed a series of his relatives on the now secondary princely throne of Kiev. Later he also com ...
's palace in Bogolyubovo (dating from 1158 to 1165).


Pskov

Pskov, while being less prosperous than Novgorod, also hosted a revival of masonry church construction in the fifteenth century. Part of this can be attributed to its location in the north, which was not invaded by the Mongols. Pskov also adopted a secular masonry style, although resources were mainly allocated towards ecclesiastical construction. Basic material for construction of these churches was local flagstone, with plinthos brick, and a thin layer of stucco to protect the layers underneath. Both the cement ground and limestone whitewash used in the wall covering contained impurities that would result in the typical light yellow and pink tones of the church exteriors. Few of the churches built in this period still exist, but several developments are present in the ones that remain. One of these include the use of wood planks as the preferred roofing material, which contributed to a typically planar roof structure as opposed to the trefoil type which became commonplace in Novgorod. After its surrender to Moscow, Pskov fared far better than Novgorod, declaring acceptance of Muscovite rule in 1510.


Gallery

File:VNovgorog SaintSophiaCathedral VN130.jpg,
Saint Sophia Cathedral Churches dedicated to Holy Wisdom (''Hagia Sophia'', also rendered ''Saint Sophia'') include: See also {{commons category, Holy Wisdom churches * Sophia of Rome#Churches, for churches named after Saint Sophia of Rome * Sofia Church (disambiguati ...
in
Veliky Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( rus, links=no, Великий Новгород, t=Great Newtown, p=vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət), also known as just Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the ...
(1045–1050) File:Murom Transfiguration monastery Transfiguration Cathedral IMG 9783 1725.jpg, Transfiguration monastery in
Murom Murom ( rus, Муром, p=ˈmurəm; Old Norse: ''Moramar'') is a historical city in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, which sprawls along the left bank of the Oka River. Population: History In the 9th century AD, the city marked the easternmost settle ...
(1096) File:Николо-Дворищенский собор.jpg, Saint Nicholas Cathedral in
Veliky Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( rus, links=no, Великий Новгород, t=Great Newtown, p=vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət), also known as just Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the ...
(1113–1136) File:Георгиевский собор.jpg, St. George's Cathedral of
Yuriev Monastery The St. George's (Yuriev) Monastery (russian: Юрьев монастырь) is usually cited as Russia's oldest monastery. It stands in 5 kilometers south of Novgorod on the left bank of the Volkhov River near where it flows out of Lake Ilmen. T ...
near
Veliky Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( rus, links=no, Великий Новгород, t=Great Newtown, p=vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət), also known as just Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the ...
(1119) File:Собор Рождества Пресвятой Богородицы в Антониевом монастыре (1117-1119) в Великом Новгороде.jpg, Katholikon of the Antoniev Monastery (1122) File:Иоанно-Предтеченский собор 2.jpg, Cathedral of St. John the Baptist (built in 1199–1139, first mentioned in 1243) File:Smolensk StPeter&PaulOnGorodyanka2.jpg, St. Peter and St. Paul's Church in
Smolensk Smolensk ( rus, Смоленск, p=smɐˈlʲensk, a=smolensk_ru.ogg) is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River, west-southwest of Moscow. First mentioned in 863, it is one of the oldest ...
(1146) File:Ba-spas-2001-june.jpg, Transfiguration Cathedral in
Pereslavl-Zalessky Pereslavl-Zalessky ( rus, Переславль-Залесский, p=pʲɪrʲɪˈslavlʲ zɐˈlʲɛskʲɪj, lit. ''Pereslavl beyond the woods''), also known as Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, is a town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located on the main Mosc ...
(1152) File:Kideksha Boris&GlebChurch 192 5654.jpg, Kideksha Church (1152) File:Собор Успения Пресвятой Богородицы XII века постройки.jpg, Assumption Cathedral, Staraya Ladoga (1154–1159) File:Палаты князя Боголюбского.jpg, Remains of the Bogolyubov castle (left) and The Temple of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin (right) (1158) File:Владимир - Золотые ворота.jpg,
Golden Gate The Golden Gate is a strait on the west coast of North America that connects San Francisco Bay to the Pacific Ocean. It is defined by the headlands of the San Francisco Peninsula and the Marin Peninsula, and, since 1937, has been spanned by t ...
in
Vladimir Vladimir may refer to: Names * Vladimir (name) for the Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Macedonian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian spellings of a Slavic name * Uladzimir for the Belarusian version of the name * Volodymyr for the Ukr ...
(1158–1164) File:Church_of_the_Protection_of_the_Theotokos_on_the_Nerl_05.jpg,
Church of the Intercession on the Nerl The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (russian: Церковь Покрова на Нерли, Tserkov Pokrova na Nerli) is a Russian Orthodox church and a symbol of medieval Russia. Dedicated to the Intercession of the Theotokos, the churc ...
(1165) File:Свирская Церковь.jpg, St. Michael the Archangel Church in
Smolensk Smolensk ( rus, Смоленск, p=smɐˈlʲensk, a=smolensk_ru.ogg) is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River, west-southwest of Moscow. First mentioned in 863, it is one of the oldest ...
(1180–1197) File:Владимир Успенский собор 2008.JPG, Dormition Cathedral in
Vladimir Vladimir may refer to: Names * Vladimir (name) for the Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Macedonian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian spellings of a Slavic name * Uladzimir for the Belarusian version of the name * Volodymyr for the Ukr ...
(1186–1189) File:Dmitrovsky sobor6000.jpg, Cathedral of Saint Demetrius in
Vladimir Vladimir may refer to: Names * Vladimir (name) for the Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Macedonian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian spellings of a Slavic name * Uladzimir for the Belarusian version of the name * Volodymyr for the Ukr ...
(1194–1197) File:DSC07770-2.jpg,
St. George's Church, Staraya Ladoga St. George's Church (russian: Геóргиевская цéрковь, цéрковь Святóго Геóргия) in the village#Russia, selo of Staraya Ladoga, Volkhovsky District, Leningrad Oblast, Russia is one of the oldest churches of Russ ...
(1180–1200) File:Собор Рождества Пресвятой Богородицы (1528-1530).jpg, Cathedral of the Nativity, Suzdal (1222–1225)


Muscovite Period


Origins of Moscow

Pre-Mongolian Moscow is sparse in the historical record, with the first mention of it being in a letter from Iurii Dolgorukii to his ally Prince Sviatoslav of Chernigov in 1147. In 1156 Iurii Dolgorukii built a wooden fortification on an earthen rampart protecting a cluster of workshops and trading rows. The Kremlin currently stands in place of these original fortifications, and a department store in the location of these original buildings. Following this construction, there are few references to Moscow. In 1176 there is a chronicle that notes that the town was burned during a raid by a neighboring principality, and in January 1238 it was overrun by the Mongol armies of Batu on their way to
Vladimir Vladimir may refer to: Names * Vladimir (name) for the Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Macedonian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian spellings of a Slavic name * Uladzimir for the Belarusian version of the name * Volodymyr for the Ukr ...
. The Mongol's looting of the territory was so thorough, however, that capitals did not have the resources to construct stone churches for decades. During Mongol rule, Moscow slowly grew. The population increased due to refugee immigration from surrounded, more exposed territories, and collaboration between the Muscovite princes and the Mongol horde meant it was safer than many surrounding capitals. Thus, Moscow grew from being a small town to being a larger capital city with more resources to dedicate towards architectural projects.


Muscovite Style

Few examples of early Muscovite stone churches remain in Moscow, and early examples are found more in the surrounding towns. One such place is the small village of Kamenskoe, whose small limestone church is dated to the latter half of the fourteenth century. It is of a simpler style than other churches commissioned in the same period, and has only been partially restored since its construction. The cornice is presumed to have originally culminated in decorative point zakomary. The interior shows features of Balkan architecture, showing a Serbian influence prevalent in Muscovite and Rus architecture of this period, such as piers attatched to interior corners (rather than being free-standing). Larger examples of these early Muscovite churches appear in Zvenigorod, about 60km west of Moscow. Records place Zvenigorod under the Muscovite domain in the fourteenth century, and by the end of it Iurii endowed it with a monastery to be under the direction of the monk Savva. It is the Savvino-Storozhevskii Monastery, and the town center was developed alongside its construction. The cathedrals built in this monastery show a depart from the pre-Mongolian stone churches built by Vladimir. It is of a simpler design, with repeating motifs and a departure from the styles of ornamentation. The style is marked by pointed forms (as opposed to zakomary and rounded arches) and a tendency to ornamentalism. The Zvenigorod cathedrals would serve as the prototypes for many of the churches that followed in the fifteenth century. Muscovite masonry continued to develop in the fifteenth and early sixteenth century, with the production of brick being more apparent in the mid-fifteenth century. In 1474
Ivan III Ivan III Vasilyevich (russian: Иван III Васильевич; 22 January 1440 – 27 October 1505), also known as Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus'. Ivan served as the co-ruler and regent for his bl ...
imported builders from Pskov to Moscow (Pskov had been saved from ruin by the Mongol horde, and thus had more advanced construction knowledge than Moscow), and they adapted the stone-slab method of construction from Pskov to the brick masonry of the churches that followed as well as incorporating several features characteristic of churches in Pskov, such as corbel arches, church porches, exterior galleries, and bell towers. The brick construction as well as a new Muscovite tendency towards bold architectural ornament is featured in the Church of the Holy Spirit (1476) which has an frieze created by glazed ceramic tiles, deriving from the ornamental stripes of Novgorod, Pskov, and Suzdalia. Other churches built by the Pskov builders during this period show more influence from Pskov's style, such as ornamental brickwork in the façade of the Church of the Deposition of the Robe (1484-5). Apart from churches, many other structures date from Ivan III's reign. These include fortifications (
Kitai-gorod Kitay-gorod ( rus, Китай-город, p=kʲɪˈtaj ˈɡorət), also referred to as the Great Possad () in the 16th and 17th centuries, is a cultural and historical area within the central part of Moscow in Russia, defined by the remnants ...
, the Kremlin (its current towers were built later), Ivangorod), towers (
Ivan the Great Bell Tower The Ivan the Great Bell Tower (russian: Колокольня Иван Великий, ''Kolokol'nya Ivan Velikiy'') is a church tower inside the Moscow Kremlin complex. With a total height of , it is the tallest tower and structure of the Kreml ...
) and palaces (the
Palace of Facets The Palace of the Facets (russian: Грановитая Палата, ''Granovitaya Palata'') is a building in the Moscow Kremlin, Russia, which contains what used to be the main banquet reception hall of the Muscovite Tsars. It is the oldest p ...
and the Uglich Palace). In the 16th century, the key development was the introduction of the
tented roof A tented roof (also known as a pavilion roof) is a type of polygonal hipped roof with steeply pitched slopes rising to a peak. W. Dean EastmanHometown Handbook: Architecture./ref> Tented roofs, a hallmark of medieval religious architecture, wer ...
in brick architecture. It is believed that this Russian derivation is a continuation of the manner of wood construction being taken in masonry form, and is a form that completely deviates from the accepted Orthodox forms. The first tent-like brick church is the Ascension church in Kolomenskoe (1531), designed to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. Its design gives rise to speculation; it is likely that this style (never found in other Orthodox countries) symbolized the ambition of the nascent Russian state and the liberation of Russian art from Byzantine canons after the Fall of Constantinople to the Turks. The style of church was also known as “Tower Churches”. After the
Time of Troubles The Time of Troubles (russian: Смутное время, ), or Smuta (russian: Смута), was a period of political crisis during the Tsardom of Russia which began in 1598 with the death of Fyodor I (Fyodor Ivanovich, the last of the Rurik dy ...
the church and state were bankrupt, unable to finance any construction works; an initiative was taken by rich merchants in
Yaroslavl Yaroslavl ( rus, Ярослáвль, p=jɪrɐˈsɫavlʲ) is a city and the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located northeast of Moscow. The historic part of the city is a World Heritage Site, and is located at the confluenc ...
, on the
Volga The Volga (; russian: Во́лга, a=Ru-Волга.ogg, p=ˈvoɫɡə) is the longest river in Europe. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has a length of , and a catchm ...
. During the 17th century, they built many large cathedral-type churches with five onion-like domes, surrounding them with tents of
bell towers A bell tower is a tower that contains one or more bells, or that is designed to hold bells even if it has none. Such a tower commonly serves as part of a Christian church, and will contain church bells, but there are also many secular bell tower ...
and
aisle An aisle is, in general, a space for walking with rows of non-walking spaces on both sides. Aisles with seating on both sides can be seen in airplanes, certain types of buildings, such as churches, cathedrals, synagogues, meeting halls, par ...
s. At first the churches' composition was sharply asymmetrical, with different parts balancing each other on the "scale-beam" principle (e.g., the Church of Elijah the Prophet, 1647–50). Subsequently, the Yaroslavl churches were strictly symmetrical, with domes taller than the building itself, and amply decorated with
polychrome Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors. Ancient Egypt Colossal statu ...
tiles (e.g., the Church of John the Chrysostom on the Volga, 1649–54). A zenith of Volga architecture was reached in the Church of St John the Baptist (built 1671–87) – the largest in Yaroslavl, with 15 domes and more than 500 frescoes. The brick exterior of the church, from the cupolas down to the tall porches, was elaborately carved and decorated with tiles. The 17th-century Moscow churches are also profusely decorated, but are much smaller in size. Earlier in the century, the Muscovites still favoured tent-like constructions. One of the favoured churches was Assumption Church in Uglich (1627): it had three graceful tents in a row, reminiscent of three burning candles. This composition was employed in the Hodegetria Church of Vyazma (1638) and the Nativity Church at Putinki, Moscow (1652). Assuming that such constructions ran counter to the traditional Byzantine type, the
Patriarch Nikon Nikon ( ru , Ни́кон, Old Russian: ''Нїконъ''), born Nikita Minin (''Никита Минин''; 7 May 1605 – 17 August 1681) was the seventh Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus' of the Russian Orthodox Church, serving officially from ...
declared them un-canonical. He encouraged building elaborate ecclesiastical residences (such as the Rostov Kremlin on the Nero Lake, which featured five tall churches, many towers, palaces, and chambers). Nikon designed his new residence at the New Jerusalem Monastery, which was dominated by a rotunda-like cathedral, the first of its type in Russia. Since the tents were banned, the Muscovite architects had to replace them with successive rows of corbel arches ( kokoshniks), and this decorative element was to become a hallmark of the 17th-century Moscow style. An early example of this style is the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square (1633–36). By the end of the century, more than 100 churches in the style were erected in Moscow. More examples are the Muscovite churches of the Holy Trinity at Nikitniki (1653), St Nicholas at Khamovniki (1682), and Holy Trinity at Ostankino (1692). One of the most representatives of the style was the Church of St Nicholas (the "Grand Cross") in the Kitai-gorod, which was demolished under Stalinist rule.


Italian Influence

The first Italian architects arrived in Moscow in 1475. A Russian envoy to Italy during Ivan III's reign, Semion Tolbuzin, managed to recruit the Bolognese architect
Aristotele Fioravanti Ridolfo "Aristotele" Fioravanti (c. 1415 or 1420 in Bologna – c. 1486 in Tsardom of Russia) was an Italian Renaissance architect and engineer, active in Muscovy from 1475, where he designed the Dormition Cathedral, Moscow during 1475–1479. Hi ...
(1420-85), as well as his son and an assistant. Fioravanti had previous work in northern Italy, as well as working alongside Antonio Averlino Filarete for the Sforza family in Milan. In Moscow, he oversaw the dismantling of the remaining walls of the Dormition Cathedral, and the rebuilding of them. The foundations of these new walls were the deepest in Moscow constructed until then, and rather than using a rubble infill, and the walls were constructed of a solid bond masonry, resulting in walls thinner than what was typical in Muscovite masonry construction. In addition to introducing new construction techniques, he also founded a brickworks which created stronger bricks than those previously used in Moscow. Fioravanti also introduced the
Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance ( it, Rinascimento ) was a period in Italian history covering the 15th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Europe and marked the trans ...
rationalism in the structural harmony of the plan according to geometric rules, resulting in the abandonment of the cross-inscribed church which had been the base plan of Moscovite and Rus churches for centuries. This new structural harmony is present in the new plan for the Cathedral of the Dormition. The design of the cathedral was overseen by the Russian clergy to intervene if it was deemed too “latinate” for the orthodox taste. The walls of the Kremlin are also a derivation of a then-outdated style of Italian fortification engineering. The walls were redone between 1485 and 1516 using brick, replacing the original limestone walls that had fallen into disrepair. Several additions to the Kremlin were constructed by Pietro Antonio Solari, another Italian, such as the four entrance towers, the Arsenal tower, and the Kremlin wall facing the
Red Square Red Square ( rus, Красная площадь, Krasnaya ploshchad', ˈkrasnəjə ˈploɕːətʲ) is one of the oldest and largest squares in Moscow, the capital of Russia. Owing to its historical significance and the adjacent historical build ...
. Another Italian architect, Aleviso Novi, built the cathedral of St Michael in the Kremlin (1505-09). He incorporated several Italianate details in the facade and decoration of the cathedral, but maintained the traditional plan prototype. The Cathedral of the Archangel Michael (1505) was one of the final churches commissioned by Ivan III. It was designed by the architect Aleviz Novyi. It is possible he is also the architect “Alvise Lamberti da Montagnana” who was noted as a student of the Venetian architect Mauro Codussi. The Cathedral of the Archangel Michael is more Venetian in style, as opposed to the Lombard style of Fioravanti.


Gallery

File:Георгиевский собор в Юрьеве-Польском (1230-1234).jpg,
Saint George Cathedral, Yuryev-Polsky Saint George Cathedral (russian: Георгиевский собор) in Yuryev-Polsky is one of a dozen surviving white-stone churches which were built in Vladimir-Suzdal Principality in the northeastern Rus prior to the Mongol invasion. Const ...
(1230–1234) File:Ilyina Transfiguration church, Novgorod.JPG, Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyina Street in
Veliky Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( rus, links=no, Великий Новгород, t=Great Newtown, p=vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət), also known as just Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the ...
(1374) File:Ансамбль Саввино-Сторожевского монастыря с разных сторон 2 Саввинская слобода, Звенигород, Московская область.jpg, Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery (15th century) File:EpiscopalPalace(Suzdal)2.JPG, Episcopal palace in Suzdal (15th century) File:The Trinity Cathedral.jpg, Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity Lavra (1422–1423) File:Andronikov monastery (Fall, 2012) by shakko 02.JPG, Saviour's Cathedral of Andronikov Monastery (1420–1425) File:Dormition (Kremlin).JPG, The
Cathedral of the Dormition The Cathedral of the Dormition (russian: Успенский собор , translit = Uspensky sobor), also known as the Assumption Cathedral or Cathedral of the Assumption, is a Russian Orthodox church dedicated to the Dormition of the Theotokos. ...
(1475–1479), Moscow File:Углич. Палаты царевича Дмитрия 03.jpg, Tsarevich Dmitry palace in
Uglich Uglich ( rus, У́глич, p=ˈuɡlʲɪtɕ) is a historic town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located on the Volga River. Population: History The city was first documented in 1148 as ''Ugliche Pole'' (''Corner Field''). The town's name is though ...
(1482) File:Московский Кремль. Грановитая палата.jpg,
Palace of Facets The Palace of the Facets (russian: Грановитая Палата, ''Granovitaya Palata'') is a building in the Moscow Kremlin, Russia, which contains what used to be the main banquet reception hall of the Muscovite Tsars. It is the oldest p ...
in Moscow Kremlin (1487–1492) File:Старый английский двор 1.jpg, Old English Court - headquarters of English
Muscovy Company The Muscovy Company (also called the Russia Company or the Muscovy Trading Company russian: Московская компания, Moskovskaya kompaniya) was an English trading company chartered in 1555. It was the first major chartered joint s ...
(1490–1510) File:0 4707b 6549aa91 spasskaya.jpg,
Spasskaya Tower The Spasskaya Tower ( rus, Спасская башня, Spasskaya Bashnya), translated as 'Saviour Tower', is the main tower on the eastern wall of the Moscow Kremlin which overlooks Red Square. History The Spasskaya Tower was built in 1491 by th ...
in Moscow Kremlin (1491) File:Clocher d'Ivan le Grand.jpg,
Ivan The Great Bell Tower The Ivan the Great Bell Tower (russian: Колокольня Иван Великий, ''Kolokol'nya Ivan Velikiy'') is a church tower inside the Moscow Kremlin complex. With a total height of , it is the tallest tower and structure of the Kreml ...
(1505–1508) File:Moscow, New Kremlin in Izmailovo, inside (2).jpg, Reconstructed example of Russian wooden architecture in Moscow which was typical for Russian architecture during 16th and 17th centuries. Typical architectural elements of Russian wooden architecture were at those times the curved large cube roof and its patterns. File:Kolomenskoe Ascension Church and the bell tower of the George Church.jpg, Church of the Ascension in
Kolomenskoe Kolomenskoye (russian: Коло́менское) is a former royal estate situated several kilometers to the southeast of the city center of Moscow, Russia, on the ancient road leading to the town of Kolomna (hence the name). The 390 hectare ...
(1532) File:Moscow - Entrance of Red Square.jpg,
Iberian Gate and Chapel Resurrection Gate ( rus, Воскресенские ворота ''Voskresenskie vorota'', also called Иверские ворота ''Iverskie vorota'', or Iberian Gate) is the only existing gate of the Kitai-gorod in Moscow. It connects the nort ...
in
Moscow Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 millio ...
(1535) File:Moscow ZnamenskyMonRomanovChambers D49.jpg, 17th-century
Romanov The House of Romanov (also transcribed Romanoff; rus, Романовы, Románovy, rɐˈmanəvɨ) was the reigning imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917. They achieved prominence after the Tsarina, Anastasia Romanova, was married to ...
boyar residence File:Moscou-Kremlin-Теремной дворец.jpg,
Terem Palace Terem Palace or Teremnoy Palace (russian: Теремной дворец) is a historical building in the Moscow Kremlin, Russia, which used to be the main residence of the Russian czars in the 17th century. Its name is derived from the Greek word ...
in the Moscow Kremlin, (1560/1635–36) File:Voznesenskaya Gate Church with its Belfry.jpg, Church of the Ascension of Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery (1590) File:The Monastery of St. Nil on Stolobnyi Island in Lake Seliger in Tver Province (Gorskii 03973).jpg, Nilov Monastery (1594) File:Церковь Троицы Живоначальной в Никитниках.jpg, Trinity Church in
Kitay-gorod Kitay-gorod ( rus, Китай-город, p=kʲɪˈtaj ˈɡorət), also referred to as the Great Possad () in the 16th and 17th centuries, is a cultural and historical area within the central part of Moscow in Russia, defined by the remnants ...
(1626) File:Церковь Рождества Пресвятой Богородицы в Путинках, фото 2..jpg, Nativity Church at Putinki (1649–1652) File:SavMon TsarPalace4.JPG, Palace of
Alexis I Aleksey Mikhaylovich ( rus, Алексе́й Миха́йлович, p=ɐlʲɪkˈsʲej mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ; – ) was the Tsar of Russia from 1645 until his death in 1676. While finding success in foreign affairs, his reign saw several wars ...
in Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery (1652–1654) File:Kreml-12apostel.jpg, Palace of the Patriarch of Moscow, with the Church of the Twelve Apostles (1653) File:Moscow AverkiyKirillov'sPalace2.jpg, Remains of the Averky Kirillov's Palace (1657) File:20140531-IMG 7721-2.jpg, Сathedral of the Resurrection, New Jerusalem Monastery (1656–1685) File:Moscow StNicholasChurch Bersenevka1.jpg, St. Nicholas Church in Bersenevka (1657) File:Kolomenskoe Wooden Palace (Morning).jpg, Kolomenskoye, summer residence of the Tsars (1667–1668) File:Russie - Moscou - Novodevichy 4.jpg,
Novodevichy Convent Novodevichy Convent, also known as Bogoroditse-Smolensky Monastery (russian: Новоде́вичий монасты́рь, Богоро́дице-Смоле́нский монасты́рь), is probably the best-known clois ...
, Moscow, 17th century File:Pogankini palati.jpg, Palace of the wealthy merchant family Pogankin in Pskov (1671–1679) File:Yaroslavl StJohnBaptistChurch 7945.jpg, St. John the Baptist Church (1671—1687) File:MoskauNikolaus-Kirche-in-Khamovniki.jpg, Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (1679–1682) File:Yar mitro.jpg, Metropolitan Palace in
Yaroslavl Yaroslavl ( rus, Ярослáвль, p=jɪrɐˈsɫavlʲ) is a city and the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located northeast of Moscow. The historic part of the city is a World Heritage Site, and is located at the confluenc ...
(1680th–1690th) File:Dubrovitsy church of Sign.JPG, Znamenskaya Church (1690–1704) File:Крутицкое подворье. Стена-переход между соборной церковью Успения и дворцом Крутицких митрополитов (вид с запада).jpg,
Krutitsy Krutitsy Metochion (russian: Крути́цкое подворье), full name: Krutitsy Patriarchal Metochion (russian: Крутицкое Патриаршее подворье) is an operating ecclesiastical estate of Russian Orthodox Churc ...
(1693–94) File:Nizhny Novgorod Pushnikov's Chamber.JPG, Pushkikov's palace in
Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod ( ; rus, links=no, Нижний Новгород, a=Ru-Nizhny Novgorod.ogg, p=ˈnʲiʐnʲɪj ˈnovɡərət ), colloquially shortened to Nizhny, from the 13th to the 17th century Novgorod of the Lower Land, formerly known as Gork ...
(1698) File:Menshikov tower (1).jpg, Menshikov tower (1707) File:Kizhi churches.jpg, The wooden churches of remote
Kizhi Pogost Kizhi Pogost (russian: Кижский погост) is a historical site dating from the 17th century on Kizhi island. The island is located on Lake Onega in the Republic of Karelia (Medvezhyegorsky District), Russia. The pogost is the area inside ...
, 1711–1714


Imperial Russia


Baroque


Naryshkin Baroque

Naryshkin Baroque Naryshkin Baroque, also referred to as Moscow Baroque or Muscovite Baroque, is a particular style of Baroque architecture and decoration that was fashionable in Moscow from the late 17th century into the early 18th century. In the late 17th century ...
, also known as Muscovite Baroque or Moscow Baroque, emerged in Moscow towards the end of the 17th century. The first of these structures were built on the Boyarin Naryshkin estate, hence the name Naryshkin Baroque. A characteristic of the Naryshkin Baroque is the combination of influences from western Europe with traditional Russian forms, and is mainly present in ecclesiastical architecture with a few secular examples. Naryshkin Baroque shows an evolution from previous, seemingly "Baroque" examples, which might seem baroque in decoration, but still maintained the traditional structural form. There are several components characteristic to these newer structures, such as a focus on a balance of symmetry, carved limestone cornices, attached columns, and a more classical style. Some of these churches are tower-like, showing a return to the Russian preference for a vertical silhouette, with cubic and octagonal floors placed atop each other (the Saviour Church at Ubory, 1697); others have a ladder-like composition, with a bell tower rising above the church itself (the Intercession Church at Fili, 1695). The decoration characteristic in this style would also tend to be extreme in quantity (e.g., the Trinity Church at Lykovo, 1696). One of the most impressive of the Naryshkin Baroque structures was the multi-domed Assumption Church on the Pokrovka Street in Moscow (built 1696–99, demolished 1929). Its architect was also responsible for the "red and white" reconstruction of several Moscow monastic structures, notably the
Novodevichy Convent Novodevichy Convent, also known as Bogoroditse-Smolensky Monastery (russian: Новоде́вичий монасты́рь, Богоро́дице-Смоле́нский монасты́рь), is probably the best-known clois ...
and the
Donskoy Monastery Donskoy Monastery (russian: Донско́й монасты́рь) is a major monastery in Moscow, founded in 1591 in commemoration of Moscow's deliverance from the threat of an invasion by the Crimean Khan Kazy-Girey. Commanding a highway to ...
.


Petrine Baroque and St. Petersburg

Petrine Baroque Petrine Baroque (Russian: Петровское барокко) is a style of 17th and 18th century Baroque architecture and decoration favoured by Peter the Great and employed to design buildings in the newly founded Russian capital, Saint Petersbu ...
is called thus due to Peter the Great's preference of this style. The style of Petrine Baroque reflects the preference for the more modest styles of Scandinavian and Dutch Baroque By Peter. Construction in this style is most apparent in
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
, which was founded by Peter the Great in 1703 as the new capital. The three radiating streets of the urban plan were based off
Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; french: Château de Versailles ) is a former royal residence built by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about west of Paris, France. The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, ...
, and the city was also crossed by tree-bordered canals inspired by those in
Amsterdam Amsterdam ( , , , lit. ''The Dam on the River Amstel'') is the capital and most populous city of the Netherlands, with The Hague being the seat of government. It has a population of 907,976 within the city proper, 1,558,755 in the urban ar ...
. To make way for this new Petrine baroque capital, Peter forbade masonry construction in other parts of the country in 1714 to ensure a more stable supply of both materials and labour for construction in the city. Forty thousand peasants would be conscripted for the construction of the city, as well as Swedish prisoners of war. One of the main architects during the early development of the city was Domenico Trezzini, an Italian-swiss architect that worked closely with Peter to design the new city. Trezzini initially started by supervising the construction of the Kronshlot bastion, where he demonstrated his skill as an engineer, and was then comissioned to rebuild the fortifications in Narva, and the design of the Peter-Paul fortress would remain one of his main duties. Trezzini would then go on to design the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, which showed a complete departure to the Russian ecclesiastical architecture of the six centuries prior. Instead of the inscribed cross typology that had been in use, he designed a basilical structure with a tower, rather than the modest dome, as the main focal point. Instead of the small windows, large windows amply illuminated the interior of the cathedral, another departure from the typical Russian church prototype. Trezzini would also design the architecture of the Alexander Nevskii Monastery, in a style that was distinctly secular and more closely resembled the administrative buildings and Palaces such as the Twelve Colleges on Vasilevskii Island (also designed by Trezzini). Among his other contributions were the design of model houses to be built throughout the city, and combined the plans of the city with the architectural views that would result. Trezzini would also design the original, more modest,
Winter Palace The Winter Palace ( rus, Зимний дворец, Zimnij dvorets, p=ˈzʲimnʲɪj dvɐˈrʲɛts) is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the Russian Emperor from 1732 to 1917. The palace and its precincts now ...
in the city for Peter which would then be engulfed into the larger Winter Palace constructed later. Many of these original Petrine palaces built in St Petersburg would either be demolished or incorporated into larger structures in the decades that followed. More examples of these palaces are found in the countryside around St Petersburg, and include the
Summer Palace The Summer Palace () is a vast ensemble of lakes, gardens and palaces in Beijing. It was an imperial garden in the Qing dynasty. Inside includes Longevity Hill () Kunming Lake and Seventeen Hole Bridge. It covers an expanse of , three-quarte ...
(1711-1714, designed by Trezzini),
Menshikov Palace The Menshikov Palace (russian: Меншиковский дворец) is a Petrine Baroque edifice in Saint Petersburg, situated on Universitetskaya Embankment of the Bolshaya Neva on Vasilyevsky Island.It is not to be confused with the Menshiko ...
(1710-1720s, designed by Giovanni Mario Fontana and Gottfried Johann Shädel). These country palaces also serve as more untouched examples of this early Petrine palace architecture. Another significant architect was the French architect Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond, who had been a student of the landscape architect André Le Nôtre (landscape architect of the Palace gardens of Versailles) and in June 1716 Peter hired him as "General-architect" of Saint Petersburg. He would design the original main palace, Peterhof, which would then be expanded by later architects and rulers. One main difference with Petrine Baroque that departed from previous Russian architectural construction was that there was also large scale secular development, not just ecclesiastical construction. This reflected Peter the Great's ideals, and the development of his new capital city. Large projects for the military, civil administration, and palace architecture was undertook, and the same imported architects were central figures in their construction.


Late Baroque

After Peter the Great's death and the ascension of
Empress Anna Anna Ioannovna (russian: Анна Иоанновна; ), also russified as Anna Ivanovna and sometimes anglicized as Anne, served as regent of the duchy of Courland from 1711 until 1730 and then ruled as Empress of Russia from 1730 to 1740. Much ...
to the throne, baroque construction in Saint Petersburg continued, this time under the employ of the Italian architect
Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (russian: Франче́ско Бартоломе́о (Варфоломе́й Варфоломе́евич) Растре́лли; 1700 in Paris, Kingdom of France – 29 April 1771 in Saint Petersburg, Russian Emp ...
. He had moved to St Petersburg in his youth with his father, the sculptor Carlo Rastrelli, in 1715, but their career stalled under a rivalry between Carlo Rastrelli and the architect Le Blonde. In 1730 they moved to Moscow, where the capital had been temporarily relocated, and either Francesco or his father were appointed court architect (it is unclear which Rastrelli it was) and were commissioned to design two wooden palaces (neither remain). They were the Winter Annenhof and the Summer Annenhof. Both served as precursors to his later work in St Petersburg once the capital was moved back. He would then go on to work on the
Winter Palace The Winter Palace ( rus, Зимний дворец, Zimnij dvorets, p=ˈzʲimnʲɪj dvɐˈrʲɛts) is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the Russian Emperor from 1732 to 1917. The palace and its precincts now ...
in St Petersburg, becoming the most imposing residence in the city once it was finished in 1735. It would host two twin facades, one facing the Neva River and another facing the
square In Euclidean geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles (90- degree angles, π/2 radian angles, or right angles). It can also be defined as a rectangle with two equal-length a ...
, imposing and whose symmetry would only be broken twice by projecting bays. In plan the palace would be an elongated rectangle, enclosing a central court. After
Empress Anna Anna Ioannovna (russian: Анна Иоанновна; ), also russified as Anna Ivanovna and sometimes anglicized as Anne, served as regent of the duchy of Courland from 1711 until 1730 and then ruled as Empress of Russia from 1730 to 1740. Much ...
’s death in 1740 and Empress Elizabeth's ascension, there would be a brief lull in new commissions for Rastrelli, but as he remained the only architect capable of large-scale royal commissions his rank as Chief Architect was reinstated a few years later. He would continue to transition in style from a late baroque to a
rococo Rococo (, also ), less commonly Roccoco or Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and theatrical style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpted moulding, ...
style, apparent in his design of the
Summer Palace The Summer Palace () is a vast ensemble of lakes, gardens and palaces in Beijing. It was an imperial garden in the Qing dynasty. Inside includes Longevity Hill () Kunming Lake and Seventeen Hole Bridge. It covers an expanse of , three-quarte ...
in the Summer Garden, and signaled a further break from the more modest
Petrine baroque Petrine Baroque (Russian: Петровское барокко) is a style of 17th and 18th century Baroque architecture and decoration favoured by Peter the Great and employed to design buildings in the newly founded Russian capital, Saint Petersbu ...
. Rococo decorative elements would be present in his future designs such as in Peterhof and Tsarskoe Selo, and some historians have argued the connection between the polychromatism of his designs (which hosted more colour than his European counterparts) with the polychromatism present in much of the Russian architectural tradition that had preceded the importation of the baroque style. Several of Rastrelli’s projects were re-designed under Catherine the Great, but many rooms still retain the original designs.


Neoclassicism

The Neoclassical in Russia not only draws influence from the Neoclassical style prevalent in France and England, but also drew from as much as it rejected the Baroque that had become prevalent in Russia over the 17th and early 18th century. The Russian neoclassical style drew its inspiration from the works of Palladio,
Vignola Vignola (Emilian language#Dialects, Modenese: ; Bolognese dialect, Bolognese: ) is a city and ''comune'' in the province of Modena (Emilia-Romagna), Italy. Its economy is based on agriculture, especially fruit farming, but there are also mechani ...
,
Vitruvius Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled '' De architectura''. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attribut ...
, and other writers on the classical orders, something that had started during the early 18th century, but had not been as apparent over the period of time where the baroque style was most prevalent. While a departure from the baroque into the neoclassical style was already in place before Catherine the Great's reign, it flourished under her rule. She had a great passion for architecture, evident in her letters to her advisor on cultural matters, and remarked on her dislike of the baroque extravaganza of Elizabeth's preferred style, thinking it as disorderly and lacking in rationality. The neoclassical under Catherine was especially French in style, partly because of the two main architects in the time, Vallin de la Mothe (French and trained in France and Italy) and Alexander Kokorinov (studied with Korobov and Ukhtomskii in Moscow) who had francophile sympathies. In comparison to the extravagance of the
Winter Palace The Winter Palace ( rus, Зимний дворец, Zimnij dvorets, p=ˈzʲimnʲɪj dvɐˈrʲɛts) is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the Russian Emperor from 1732 to 1917. The palace and its precincts now ...
, de la Mothe and Kokorinov's design for the Academy of Arts was an example of classical simplicity. The building’s facade and its five part division drew from the model established by Le Vau, Perrault, and Le Brun on the
Louvre The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is the world's most-visited museum, and an historic landmark in Paris, France. It is the home of some of the best-known works of art, including the ''Mona Lisa'' and the ''Venus de Milo''. A central l ...
, while using modest pilasters to define the middle sections. The exterior also lacks the bichromatic scheme of the earlier styles present in St Petersburg, instead using colours that mimicked simple a simple stone facade. The rest of the facade also lacks in decoration, instead being a showcase of neoclassical rationalism and uses the first example of “proper” entablature in Russian architecture. Vallin de la Mothe would go on to design the Small Hermitage (1764-1775) to house Catherine the Great’s art collection, furthering the use of simplicity in neoclassicism with detached, austere columns and a muting of the vivid colours of the rest of St Petersburg’s colours. After Catherine, the imperial building tradition would continue under
Alexander I Alexander I may refer to: * Alexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon 495–454 BC * Alexander I of Epirus (370–331 BC), king of Epirus * Pope Alexander I (died 115), early bishop of Rome * Pope Alexander I of Alexandria (died 320s), patriarch of ...
, who favoured the neoclassical Empire style of architecture, as was popular during the period, and continued the French influence in the architecure of the time. The architect Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin was a pupil of Wailly in Paris and would design the Virgin of Kazan cathedral in St Petersburg (1801-1811) and boasted a domed center flanked by quadrant colonnade. The Greek revival style is also apparent in his design for the Academy of Mines (1806-1811) which has a decastyle portico of Paestum Doric columns. Another architect, the frenchman Thomas de Thomom would design the Grand Bolshoi theatre (1802-1805, destroyed 1813) and modeled it after the Theatre-Francais in Paris. More buildings included the New Admiralty Building (1806-1823, designed by the Russian born, French trained architect Adrian Dmitrievich Zakharov), the New Michael Palace (1819-1825, designed by Karl Ivanovich Rossi, today the
Russian Museum The State Russian Museum (russian: Государственный Русский музей), formerly the Russian Museum of His Imperial Majesty Alexander III (russian: Русский Музей Императора Александра III), on ...
), and St Isaac’s Cathedral (1817-1857, designed by Auguste Ricard de Montferrand).


Historicism and Eclecticism

In the 1830s Nicholas I eased regulation in architecture, opening the trade to several incarnations of early
eclecticism Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories i ...
. Konstantin Ton's pseudo-Russian designs became the preferred choice in church construction ( Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, 1832–1883), while his public buildings followed
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
tradition, exemplified in the Great Kremlin Palace (1838–49) and the
Kremlin Armoury The Kremlin Armoury,Officially called the "Armou/ory Chamber" but also known as the cannon yard, the "Armou/ory Palace", the "Moscow Armou/ory", the "Armou/ory Museum", and the "Moscow Armou/ory Museum" but different from the Kremlin Arsenal. ( ...
(1844–1851). The subsequent reigns of Alexander II and Alexander III promoted a Russian
Byzantine Revival Neo-Byzantine architecture (also referred to as Byzantine Revival) was a revival movement, most frequently seen in religious, institutional and public buildings. It incorporates elements of the Byzantine style associated with Eastern and Ortho ...
in church architecture, while civil construction followed the same variety of eclecticism common in all European countries; this featured ever-growing national revival trends, vernacular and imaginary. Between 1895 and 1905 architecture was briefly dominated by Russian Art Nouveau, most active in Moscow (
Lev Kekushev Lev Nikolayevich Kekushev (russian: Лев Николаевич Кекушев) was a Russian architect, notable for his Art Nouveau buildings in Moscow, built in the 1890s and early 1900s in the original, Franco-Belgian variety of this style. Ke ...
,
Fyodor Schechtel Fyodor Osipovich Schechtel (russian: Фёдор О́сипович Ше́хтель; August 7, 1859 – July 7, 1926) was a Russian architect, graphic artist and stage designer, the most influential and prolific master of Russian Art Nouveau and ...
and
William Walcot William Walcot (10 March 1874 – 21 May 1943) was a Scottish architect, graphic artist and etcher, notable as a practitioner of refined Art Nouveau (Style Moderne) in Moscow, Russia (as Вильям Францевич Валькот). His t ...
). While it remained a popular choice until the outbreak of
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, in 1905–1914 it gave way to the
Russian neoclassical revival Russian neoclassical revival was a trend in Russian culture, most pronounced in architecture, that briefly replaced Eclecticism and Art Nouveau as the leading architectural style between the Revolution of 1905 and the outbreak of World War I, coexi ...
– merging the Empire style and
Palladian Palladian architecture is a European architectural style derived from the work of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). What is today recognised as Palladian architecture evolved from his concepts of symmetry, perspective and ...
tradition with contemporary construction technology.


Gallery

File:Admiralty_SPB.jpg, Admiralty building (1704–1706) File:RUS-2016-Aerial-SPB-Peter and Paul Fortress 02.jpg, Peter and Paul Fortress (1706–1740) File:Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg,
Peterhof Palace The Peterhof Palace ( rus, Петерго́ф, Petergóf, p=pʲɪtʲɪrˈɡof,) (an emulation of early modern Dutch "Pieterhof", meaning "Pieter's Court"), is a series of palaces and gardens located in Petergof, Saint Petersburg, Russia, commi ...
(1714–1755) File:Мост у Константиновского дворца.jpg, Konstantin palace (1715–1720) File:Екатерининский дворец и парк.jpg, Catherine Palace in
Tsarskoye Selo Tsarskoye Selo ( rus, Ца́рское Село́, p=ˈtsarskəɪ sʲɪˈlo, a=Ru_Tsarskoye_Selo.ogg, "Tsar's Village") was the town containing a former residence of the Russian imperial family and visiting nobility, located south from the c ...
(1752–1757) File:Winter Palace Panorama 2.jpg,
Winter Palace The Winter Palace ( rus, Зимний дворец, Zimnij dvorets, p=ˈzʲimnʲɪj dvɐˈrʲɛts) is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the Russian Emperor from 1732 to 1917. The palace and its precincts now ...
(1762–1796) File:Casa Pashkov, Moscú, Rusia, 2016-10-03, DD 36-37 HDR.jpg, Pashkov House (1784–1786) File:RUS-2016-Aerial-SPB-St Michael's Castle 02.jpg,
Saint Michael's Castle Saint Michael's Castle (russian: Миха́йловский за́мок, ''Mikhailovsky zamok''), also called the Mikhailovsky Castle or the Engineers' Castle (russian: Инженерный замок, ''Inzhenerny zamok''), is a former royal ...
(1797–1801) File:SP KazanskyCathedral 2370.jpg, Kazan Cathedral (1801–1811) File:Ансамбль Дворцовой площади (2).jpg, General Staff Building (1819–1828) File:Saint Isaac's Cathedral in SPB.jpeg,
Saint Isaac's Cathedral Saint Isaac's Cathedral or Isaakievskiy Sobor (russian: Исаа́киевский Собо́р) is a large architectural landmark cathedral that currently functions as a museum with occasional church services in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is ...
(1819–1858) File:Teatro Bolshói, Moscú, Rusia, 2016-10-03, DD 42-43 HDR.jpg, Bolshoi Theatre (1821–1825) File:Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg, Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (1860–1883) File:Państwowe Muzeum Historyczne w Moskwie 01.JPG,
State Historical Museum The State Historical Museum ( Russian: Государственный исторический музей, ''Gosudarstvenny istoricheskiy muzyey'') of Russia is a museum of Russian history The history of Russia begins with the histories of ...
(1875–1881) File:GUM Store - Moscow, Russia - panoramio.jpg, GUM department store (1890–1893) File:Eliseevs' House SPB 01.jpg, Eliseyev Emporium (1902–1903) File:Moscow 05-2012 TretyakovGallery.jpg,
Tretyakov gallery The State Tretyakov Gallery (russian: Государственная Третьяковская Галерея, ''Gosudarstvennaya Tretyâkovskaya Galereya''; abbreviated ГТГ, ''GTG'') is an art gallery in Moscow, Russia, which is considered th ...
(1902–1904) File:Singer House SPB 01.jpg, Singer House (1902–1904)


Soviet Period


Post-Revolution

In the first year of Soviet rule all architects refusing to emigrate (and the new generation) denounced any classical heritage in their work and began to propagate
formalism Formalism may refer to: * Form (disambiguation) * Formal (disambiguation) * Legal formalism, legal positivist view that the substantive justice of a law is a question for the legislature rather than the judiciary * Formalism (linguistics) * Scie ...
, the most influential of all Revivalist themes. Great plans were drawn for large, technically advanced cities. The most ambitious of all was the Monument to the Third International, planned in 1919 by
Vladimir Tatlin Vladimir Yevgrafovich Tatlin ( – 31 May 1953) was a Russian and USSR, Soviet painter, architect and stage-designer. Tatlin achieved fame as the architect who designed The Monument to the Third International, more commonly known as Tatlin's Towe ...
(1885–1953), а 400-
meter The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
spiral, wound around a tilted central axis with rotating glass chambers. Impossible in real life, the Tatlin Tower inspired a generation of Constructivist architects in Russia and abroad. The
Shukhov Tower The Shukhov Radio Tower (russian: Шуховская башня), also known as the Shabolovka Tower (), is a broadcasting tower deriving from the Russian avant-garde in Moscow designed by Vladimir Shukhov. The free-standing steel diagrid st ...
, rising above Moscow, was completed in 1922. According to the initial plans, the hyperboloid tower by
Vladimir Shukhov Vladimir Grigoryevich Shukhov (russian: link=no, Влади́мир Григо́рьевич Шу́хов; – 2 February 1939) was a Russian Empire and Soviet engineer-polymath, scientist and architect renowned for his pioneering works on new ...
with a height of had an estimated mass of , while the
Eiffel Tower The Eiffel Tower ( ; french: links=yes, tour Eiffel ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower. Locally nicknamed "' ...
in Paris (with a height of ) weighs . Residents of apartment buildings were sealed, they were hooked by new tenants. The so-called '' kommunalka'' became the most common type of accommodation for the residents of large cities. In each communal apartment one room belonged to one family, while bathroom, toilet and kitchen were shared. Such a scheme was widespread until the mid-1950s, and in some cities there are more communal apartments. At the same time with the 1930s for senior people began to build houses with separate bedroom apartments, where one family was given the whole apartment. An example of such a house called
House on the Embankment The House on the Embankment (russian: link=no, Дом на набережной) is a block-wide apartment building on the banks of the Moskva River on Balchug in downtown Moscow, Russia. It faces Bersenevskaya Embankment on one side and Serafim ...
(''Dom na naberezhnoi'') in Moscow, built in 1927–1931, respectively. An important priority during the post-revolutionary period was the mass reconstruction of cities. In 1918
Alexey Shchusev Alexey Victorovich Shchusev (academic spelling), german: Schtschussew, french: Chtchoussev, pl, Szchusiew. (russian: Алексе́й Ви́кторович Щу́сев; – 24 May 1949) was a Russian and Soviet architect who was successf ...
(1873–1949) and Ivan Zholtovsky founded the
Mossovet The Mossoviet (Russian: Моссовет), an abbreviation of Moscow Soviet, (Московский Совет) was established following the February Revolution . Initially it was a parallel, shadow city administration of Moscow, Russia run by lef ...
Architectural Workshop, where the complex planning of Moscow's reconstruction as a new Soviet capital took place. The workshop employed young architects who later emerged as
avant-garde The avant-garde (; In 'advance guard' or ' vanguard', literally 'fore-guard') is a person or work that is experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society.John Picchione, The New Avant-garde in Italy: Theoretical ...
leaders. At the same time architectural education, concentrated in the Vkhutemas, was divided between revivalists and modernists. In 1919, Petrograd saw a similar planning and educational setup, headed by experienced revivalist
Ivan Fomin Ivan Aleksandrovich Fomin (3 February 1872 – 12 June 1936) was a Russian architect and educator. He began his career in 1899 in Moscow, working in the Art Nouveau style. After relocating to Saint Petersburg in 1905, he became an established mast ...
(1872–1936). Other cities followed suit and the results of the work carried out there were to make dramatic changes in traditional Russian city layout. The first large-scale development templates (''generalny plan'') were drawn there. The city was planned as a series of new wide avenues, massive public structures and the improvement of workers' housing with heat and plumbing. The first apartment building of this period was completed in 1923, followed by a surge of public-housing construction in 1925–1929. In Petrograd from 1917 to 1919 the first example of the new style was built on the Field of Mars – a monument, "Strugglers of the Revolution", designed by
Lev Rudnev Lev Vladimirovich Rudnev (russian: Лев Владимирович Ру́днев; – November 19, 1956) was a Soviet architect, and a leading practitioner of Stalinist architecture. Biography Rudnev was born to the family of a school teach ...
(1886–1956). This complex consisted of a series of simple, expressive granite monoliths and became the focal point for further development in Soviet sculptural and memorial architecture. The most famous construction of this time, however, was
Lenin's Mausoleum Lenin's Mausoleum (from 1953 to 1961 Lenin's & Stalin's Mausoleum) ( rus, links=no, Мавзолей Ленина, r=Mavzoley Lenina, p=məvzɐˈlʲej ˈlʲenʲɪnə), also known as Lenin's Tomb, situated on Red Square in the centre of Moscow, i ...
by Alexey Shchusev. Originally it was a temporary wooden structure, topped by a pyramid, with two wings (for entry and exit). In 1930 it was replaced with the present building, built of stone. The combination of dark red and black
labradorite Labradorite (( Ca, Na)( Al, Si)4 O8) is a calcium-enriched feldspar mineral first identified in Labrador, Canada, which can display an iridescent effect (schiller). Labradorite is an intermediate to calcic member of the plagioclase series. It ...
enhanced its slender, precise construction. The rapid development of technological processes and materials also influenced constructivist elements in structure design. During the erection of the
Volkhov Hydroelectric Station Volkhov hydroelectric plant (russian: Волховская ГЭС имени В. И. Ленина, Volkhovskaya GZS imeni V. I. Lenina), named after V.I. Lenin, is a hydroelectric station on the Volkhov River located in the town of Volkhov, Lenin ...
(1918–26, architects O.Munts and V.Pokrovsky), the traditional outline on the window arches is still used (despite concrete being used in construction). The
Dnieper Hydroelectric Station The Dnieper Hydroelectric Station ( uk, ДніпроГЕС, DniproHES; russian: ДнепроГЭС, DneproGES), also known as Dneprostroi Dam, in the city of Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine, is the largest hydroelectric power station on the Dnieper river. ...
(1927–32), built by a collective of architects headed by Viktor Vesnin (1882–1950), has an innovative design featuring a curved dam with a rhythmic pattern of foundations. Creative unions played a large role in the architectural life of 1920s Russia. One of these was the Association of New Architects (
ASNOVA ASNOVA (russian: АСНОВА; abbreviation for russian: АСсоциация НОВых Архитекторов, ''Association of New Architects'') was an Avant-Garde architectural association in the Soviet Union, which was active in the 1920s ...
), formed in 1923, which promoted the idea of synthesising architecture and other creative arts to give buildings an almost sculptural feeling. These buildings were to serve as visual points for the orientation of a human in space. Members of ASNOVA also designed Moscow's first skyscrapers, none of which were realised at the time (1923–1926). Another innovation from post-revolutionary Russia was a new type of public building: the Workers' Club and the
Palace of Culture Palace of Culture (russian: Дворец культуры, dvorets kultury, , ''wénhuà gōng'', german: Kulturpalast) or House of Culture (Polish: ''dom kultury'') is a common name ( generic term) for major club-houses (community centres) in t ...
. These became a new focus for architects, who used the visual expression of large elements combined with industrial motifs. The most famous of these was the Zuev Workers' Club (1927–29) in Moscow by Ilya Golosov (1883–1945), whose composition relied on the dynamic contrast of simple shapes, planes, complete walls and glazed surfaces. Symbolic expression in construction was a feature in works designed by
Konstantin Melnikov Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov (Russian: Константин Степанович Мельников;  – November 28, 1974) was a Russian architect and painter. His architectural work, compressed into a single decade (1923–33), placed ...
(1890–1974), notably the Rusakov Workers' Club (1927–1929) in Moscow. Visually, the building resembles part of a gear; each of the three cantilevered concrete "teeth" is a balcony of the main auditorium, which could be used individually or combined into a large theatre hall. The sharpness of its composition and the "transition" of internal space (called by Melnikov a "tensed muscle") made it one of the most important examples of Soviet architecture. File:Шуховская башня ночью.JPG,
Shukhov Tower The Shukhov Radio Tower (russian: Шуховская башня), also known as the Shabolovka Tower (), is a broadcasting tower deriving from the Russian avant-garde in Moscow designed by Vladimir Shukhov. The free-standing steel diagrid st ...
in
Moscow Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 millio ...
File:Moscow SakharovaStreet37 1505.jpg,
Tsentrosoyuz building The Tsentrosoyuz Building or Centrosoyuz Building (russian: Центросоюз) is a government structure in Moscow, Russia, constructed in 1933 by Le Corbusier and Nikolai Kolli. Centrosoyuz refers to a Soviet bureaucracy, the Central Union of ...
File:Moscow ClubKauchuk h42b.jpg, Kauchuk Factory Club File:Bus melnikov.JPG,
Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage was a public bus garage in Moscow, designed in 1926 by Konstantin Melnikov (floorplan concept and architectural design) and Vladimir Shukhov (structural engineering). The building, completed in 1927, was an example of app ...
File:Moscow IzvestiaBuilding 0623.jpg, ''Izvestia'' building File:Мавзолей Ленина 01.jpg,
Lenin's mausoleum Lenin's Mausoleum (from 1953 to 1961 Lenin's & Stalin's Mausoleum) ( rus, links=no, Мавзолей Ленина, r=Mavzoley Lenina, p=məvzɐˈlʲej ˈlʲenʲɪnə), also known as Lenin's Tomb, situated on Red Square in the centre of Moscow, i ...
File:Moscow DinamoBuilding 6255.jpg, Dinamo Building File:Zuev Workers' Club - Moscow (1928).jpg, Zuev Workers' Club File:Power Station of the Red Banner Textile Factory SPB.jpg, Red Banner Textile Factory File:Melnikov House photo by Arssenev.jpg, Melnikov House (1927–1929) File:Moscow RusakovClub 0820.jpg, Rusakov Workers' Club (1927) File:КрасныеКУБЫ - panoramio.jpg, Svoboda Factory Club File:Moscow DorkhimzavodClub 5213.jpg, Dorkhimzavod Club File:Moscow HouseOnEmbankment 6495.jpg,
House on the Embankment The House on the Embankment (russian: link=no, Дом на набережной) is a block-wide apartment building on the banks of the Moskva River on Balchug in downtown Moscow, Russia. It faces Bersenevskaya Embankment on one side and Serafim ...
in Moscow File:Iset Hotel.jpg, Hotel Iset in Ekaterinburg File:Moscow Narkomzem 1234.jpg, NarKomZem File:Главпочтамт Екатеринбурга.jpg, Central Post Office in Ekaterinburg File:Драмматичекий театр М.Горького.JPG, Maxim Gorky Theatre in Rostov-na-Donu


Post-War

Stalinist architecture put a premium on conservative monumentalism. During the 1930s there was rapid urbanisation as a result of Stalin's policies, and there was an international competition to build the
Palace of the Soviets The Palace of the Soviets (russian: Дворец Советов, ''Dvorets Sovetov'') was a project to construct a political convention center in Moscow on the site of the demolished Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. The main function of the pa ...
in Moscow at that time. After 1945, the focus was on both rebuilding structures destroyed in
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
and erecting new ones: seven high-rise buildings were built at symbolic points in the Moscow area. The construction of Moscow University (1948–1953), by
Lev Rudnev Lev Vladimirovich Rudnev (russian: Лев Владимирович Ру́днев; – November 19, 1956) was a Soviet architect, and a leading practitioner of Stalinist architecture. Biography Rudnev was born to the family of a school teach ...
and associates, is particularly notable for its use of space. Another example is the Exhibition Centre in Moscow, built for the second All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (''VSKhV'') in 1954. This featured a series of pavilions, each decorated in representative style. Other well-known examples are the stations of the
Moscow Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 millio ...
and
Saint Petersburg Metro The Saint Petersburg Metro (russian: links=no, Петербургский метрополитен, Peterburgskiy metropoliten) is a rapid transit system in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Construction began in early 1941, but was put on hold due to Wor ...
s built during the 1940s and 1950s, famous for their extravagant design and vivid decoration. In general, Stalinist architecture changed the appearance of many post-war cities; much survives to this day in central avenues and public buildings. Following Stalin's death in 1953, social and political changes rocked the country; construction priorities and architecture were also affected. In 1955
Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and chairman of the country's Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. During his rule, Khrushchev s ...
, faced with the slow pace of housing construction, called for drastic measures to accelerate the process. This involved developing new mass-production technology and removing "decorative extras" from buildings. On special plants that were built in every major city had launched production of special concrete blocks ready openings for doors and windows of which were built houses. These
prefabricated Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. The term ...
blocks were brought from the factory ready-made and installed on the steel frame of a house. Houses built in this way were called block houses. All projects such houses have become standardized and have been summarized in several series (for example II-32 series), which were built houses. Projects for a buyout built schools, kindergartens and hospitals were also typical. This put an effective end to Stalinist architecture; however, the transition was slow. Most projects in the planning state or under construction by 1955 were directly affected; the result, at times, was entire areas becoming esthetically asymmetrical. A well-known example occurred in the postwar reconstruction of the Ukrainian capital, Kiev (now
Kyiv Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the seventh-most populous city in Europe. Kyi ...
), in which the planned Kreschatik avenue and its central square ( Ploschad Kalinina) were to form a single rich space enclosed by Stalinist architecture. As the buildings enclosing the latter were in completion, the architects were forced to alter their plans and the area was left unfinished until the early 1980s. In particular
Hotel Ukrayina Hotel Ukraine ( ua, Готель Україна), also referred to as Hotel Ukrayina, is a four-star hotel located in central Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine. It was built in 1961 as the Hotel "Moscow" in a location which originally was occupied by ...
, which was to crown the square with a look similar to one of Moscow's "Seven Sisters", was left as a solid shape without a top spire or any rich external decoration. Nevertheless, as the buildings became more square and simple they brought with them a new style fueled by the
Space Age The Space Age is a period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events, beginning with the launch of Sputnik 1 during 1957, and continuin ...
: functionality. The
State Kremlin Palace The State Kremlin Palace (russian: Государственный Кремлёвский Дворец), formerly and unofficially still better known as the Kremlin Palace of Congresses (Кремлёвский Дворец съездов), is a ...
is an hommage to an earlier attempt to bridge rapidly changing styles dictated by the state. The Ostankino Tower, by Nikolai Nikitin, symbolizes technological advances and the future. In addition to simpler buildings, the 1960s are remembered for massive housing plans. A typical project was developed using concrete panels to make a simple, five-story house. These ''Pyatietazhki'' became the dominant housing construction. Although rapidly built, their quality was poor compared with earlier housing; their monotonous appearance contributed to the grey and dull stereotype characteristic of socialist cities. As the 1970s began,
Leonid Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev; uk, links= no, Леонід Ілліч Брежнєв, . (19 December 1906– 10 November 1982) was a Soviet politician who served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between 1964 and ...
allowed architects more freedom; soon, housing of varied design was built. Blocks of flats were taller and more decorated; large mosaics on their sides became a feature. In nearly all cases, these were built not as standalone construction but as part of large estates (french: housing massif) which soon became a central feature of socialist cities. In contrast to the houses built in the 1950s–1960s, which had up to 5 floors, new residential buildings were higher and could have up to nine or more floors, although the house with fewer floors continued to be built. Each complex includes an extensive area with a yard for walks, a playground with swings, a sandbox for the games and sites for parking vehicles, which are often supplemented by garages for cars, lined up separately from the residential buildings. This principle remains today. Public buildings were built with a variety of themes. Some (like the White House of Russia) made direct connections to earlier 1950s architecture, with a white marble-faced exterior and large
bas-relief Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
s on the wings. File:МГУ. Вид на главное здание..jpg,
Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU; russian: Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова) is a public research university in Moscow, Russia and the most prestigious ...
main building File:"Главный павильон ВДНХ".JPG,
All-Russia Exhibition Centre Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy (russian: Выставка достижений народного хозяйства, ''Vystavka dostizheniy narodnogo khozyaystva'', abbreviated as VDNKh or VDNH, russian: ВДНХ, ) is a perman ...
File:House of Soviets SPB.jpg, House of Soviets File:Zemlyanoy Val 46 03.JPG, House of the MGB workers File:Kosmodamianskaya 4-22 05.JPG, Guest House On Kosmodamianskaya Naberezhnaya File:Moscow SmolenskayaEmbankment5d13 K01.jpg, General's House at Smolenskaya embankment File:Gates of Minsk (2016).jpg, Minsk Gate File:Hotel Rossija.jpg,
Rossiya Hotel The Rossiya Hotel (russian: Гостиница «Россия») was a five-star international hotel in Moscow. It was the largest hotel in the world from 1967 to 1980. Until its closure in 2006, it remained the second largest hotel in Europe, ...
File:Ras-praesidium-2013-dsc08095.jpg, Presidium Building of Russian Academy of Science File:Moscow Frunzenskaya Embankment at Pushkinsky Bridge 08-2016.jpg, Main Building of the Ministry of Defense File:Novosibirsk KrasnyPr Opera Theatre 07-2016.jpg,
Novosibirsk Opera and Ballet Theatre The Novosibirsk Opera and Ballet Theatre (the official title is the Novosibirsk State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre (russian: Новосибирский государственный академический театр оперы и ба ...
File:Ленинградский проспект, 27.jpg, Openwork house File:Ostankino Tower, 2015.JPG, Ostankino Tower File:Krasnopresnenskaya 2 01.JPG, Moscow White House File:Sovetsky City District, Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia - panoramio (121).jpg, Typical Khrushchyovka in
Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod ( ; rus, links=no, Нижний Новгород, a=Ru-Nizhny Novgorod.ogg, p=ˈnʲiʐnʲɪj ˈnovɡərət ), colloquially shortened to Nizhny, from the 13th to the 17th century Novgorod of the Lower Land, formerly known as Gork ...
File:Dov 8.jpg, Unusual round-shaped plattenbau in Moscow File:New Arbat Ave.jpg, Book houses at New Arbat File:Ped institut.jpg, Housing the university, built in the early 1970s, in Ulyanovsk (
Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University Ilya Ulyanov State Pedagogical University (russian: Ульяновский государственный педагогический университет имени И.Н.Ульянова) is a major higher education and research instituti ...
)


Post-Soviet and Present Day

As the Soviet Union fell apart, many of its projects were put on hold and some cancelled altogether. However, for the first time there was no longer any control over what theme a building should have or how high it should be. As a result, with generally improving financial conditions architecture grew at a high rate. For the first time modern methods of skyscraper construction were implemented, this resulted in an ambitious Moscow International Business Center. In other cases, architects returned to successful designs of Stalinist architecture, which resulted in buildings like the Triumph Palace in Moscow. New Classical Architecture is also appearing more consistently throughout modern Russia, with a large complex being proposed for
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
. File:Москва, Большая Дорогомиловская улица - panoramio.jpg, Moscow International Business Center File:Ekaterinburg-city.jpg,
Yekaterinburg-City Yekaterinburg-City ( rus, Екатеринбург-Сити, ''Yekaterinburg-Siti'') is a commercial district near the center of the city of Yekaterinburg, Russia. It is located on Boris Yeltsin Street on the embankment of the Iset River and is ...
File:СПб-Плаза.jpg, Saint Petersburg Plaza File:Saint Petersburg Lakhta center 10.jpg,
Lakhta Center The Lakhta Center () is an 87-story skyscraper built in the northwestern neighbourhood of Lakhta in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Standing tall, it is the tallest building in Russia, the tallest building in Europe, and the sixteenth-tallest bu ...
File:Moscow 05-2017 img42 Triumph Palace.jpg, Triumph Palace File:Moscow bus and tram 5291 20101107 0479 (11585871626).jpg, Sokolinaya Gora File:Алые паруса, общий вид - panoramio.jpg, Scarlet Sails File:Oruzheiny Complex Tower1.jpg, Oruzheiny Complex File:Mariinsky Theatre Saint Petersburg Russia 05.jpg, Mariinsky Theatre Second Stage File:Spb 06-2017 img40 Krestovsky Stadium (cropped).jpg, Gazprom Arena (UFO) File:Novosibirsk Technopark, 2 October 2014.jpg, Technopark in
Akademgorodok Akademgorodok ( rus, Академгородок, p=ɐkəˌdʲemɡərɐˈdok, "Academic Town") is a part of the Sovetsky City District, Novosibirsk, Sovetsky District of the city of Novosibirsk, Russia, located south of the city center and abou ...
File:Sochi adler aerial view 2018 23.jpg,
Fisht Olympic Stadium Fisht Olympic Stadium (russian: Олимпийский стадион «Фишт», p=ɐlʲɪmˈpʲijskʲɪj stədʲɪˈon ˈfʲiʂt, r=Olimpiyskiy stadion "Fisht", ''Olimpiyskiy Stadion Fisht'') is an outdoor stadium in Sochi, Russia. Located i ...
File:White Square Office Center Moscow1.jpg, White Square File:Moscow HouseOnMosfilmofskaya.jpg,
House on Mosfilmovskaya The Mosfilm Tower (russian: Дом на Мосфильмовской) is a Russian skyscraper in the Mosfilmovskaya section of Moscow, Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Eu ...
File:Moscow Dubrovka Dominion Tower 08-2016.jpg, Dominion Tower File:Moscow, new building of the Fomenko Theatre (397).jpg, Fomenko theatre File:Kazan. Agriculturers palace P8111917 2200.jpg, Agricultural palace File:Zaryadye26.jpg,
Zaryadye Park Zaryadye Park ( rus, Парк Зарядье) is a landscape urban park located adjacent to Red Square in Moscow, Russia, on the site of the former Rossiya Hotel. The park was inaugurated on 9 September 2017 by Russian President Vladimir Putin a ...


See also

*
Russian Revival architecture The Russian Revival style (historiographical names are: ''Russian style'', russian: русский стиль, ''Pseudo-Russian style'', russian: псевдорусский стиль, ''Neo-Russian style'', russian: нео-русский стил ...
*
List of tallest buildings in Russia The first skyscrapers in Russia were built during the Stalinist Era in the Soviet Union. These skyscrapers are known as the Seven Sisters, which were built in the Stalinist architectural style. The first skyscraper to be constructed in Russia wa ...
* List of Russian architects * Latvian Academy of Sciences * Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Warsaw * Warsaw Palace of Culture and Science *
Russian Church, Sofia The Russian Church ( bg, Руска църква, translit=Ruska tsarkva), officially known as the Church of St Nicholas the Miracle-Maker ( bg, църква „Св. Николай Чудотворец“, translit=tsarkva "Sv. Nikolay Chudotvoret ...


References


Bibliography

* "Architecture: Kievan Rus and Russia" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica (Macropedia) vol. 13,'' 15th ed., 2003, p. 921. *
William Craft Brumfield __NOTOC__ William Craft Brumfield (born June 28, 1944) is a contemporary American historian of Russian architecture, a preservationist and an architectural photographer. Brumfield is currently Professor of Slavic studies at Tulane University ...
, ''Landmarks of Russian Architecture: A Photographic Survey.'' Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, 1997 * John Fleming, Hugh Honour, Nikolaus Pevsner. "Russian Architecture" in ''The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture'', 5th ed., 9661998, pp. 493–498, London: Penguin. .
Russian art and architecture
in The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–05.
''Encyclopædia Britannica''Western architecture retrieved 12 August 2005


* ttp://www.groveart.com/shared/views/article.html?section=art.074586.3.3.2&authstatuscode=200 Grove Art Online articles on Russian architecture Oxford University Press 2005 retrieved 12 August* ''Russian Life'' July/August 2000 Volume 43 Issue 4 "Faithful Reproduction" an interview with Russian architecture expert William Brumfield on the rebuilding of Christ the Saviour Cathedral * David Watkin, ''A History of Western Architecture'' 6th ed., 2015, London, Laurence King Publishing . * Francis D.K. Ching, Mark Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash, ''A Global History of Architecture'' 3rd ed., 2017, Hoboken, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. . * Arthur Voyce, "National Elements in Russian Architecture", ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' May 1957, No 2, pp.6-16 *
William Craft Brumfield __NOTOC__ William Craft Brumfield (born June 28, 1944) is a contemporary American historian of Russian architecture, a preservationist and an architectural photographer. Brumfield is currently Professor of Slavic studies at Tulane University ...
, ''A History of Russian Architecture'', 2004 (Originally published 1998), University of Washington Press . *
William Craft Brumfield __NOTOC__ William Craft Brumfield (born June 28, 1944) is a contemporary American historian of Russian architecture, a preservationist and an architectural photographer. Brumfield is currently Professor of Slavic studies at Tulane University ...
, "The Development of Medieval Church Architecture in the Vologda Region of the Russian North" ''Architectural History'', Vol. 40, 1997, pp.64-80


Further reading

* Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan
''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture''
Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896)bISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 12. *
William Craft Brumfield __NOTOC__ William Craft Brumfield (born June 28, 1944) is a contemporary American historian of Russian architecture, a preservationist and an architectural photographer. Brumfield is currently Professor of Slavic studies at Tulane University ...
, ''A History of Russian Architecture.'' Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 9932004.


External links


The William C. Brumfield Collection, part of ''Meeting of Frontiers: Siberia, Alaska, and the American West''

Russian Architecture
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Russian photosite of Orthodox architecture
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Russian society of architects
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* ttp://www.doit.house/russian-wooden-church.shtml Russian wooden churches

{{DEFAULTSORT:Russian Architecture Architecture in Russia, Architectural history Russian art