Russian Civil War

{{Infobox military conflict
, conflict = Russian Civil War
, partof = the Russian Revolution and the aftermath of World War I
, image =
, caption = Clockwise from top left:
{{flatlist,
*Soldiers of the Don Army
*Soldiers of the Siberian Army
*Suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion
*American troops in Vladivostok during the intervention
*Victims of the Red Terror in

Crimea

*Hanging of workers in

Yekaterinoslav

by the Austrians
*A review of Red Army troops in Moscow.

, date =

7 November 1917

– 16 June 1923{{Efn, The main phase ended on 25 October 1922. Revolt against the Bolsheviks continued in Central Asia and the Far East through the 1920s and 1930s.{{cite book, last=Mawdsley, first=Evan, title=The Russian Civil War, location=New York, publisher=Pegasus Books, year=2007, isbn=9781681770093, url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan, url-access=registration{{rp, 3,230
(5 years, 7 months and 9 days)
{{Collapsible list
, bullets = yes
, title = Peace treaties
, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Signed 3 March 1918
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=3, day2=3, year2=1918)
, Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)
Signed 2 February 1920
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=2, day2=2, year2=1920)
, Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
Signed 12 July 1920
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=7, day2=12, year2=1920)
, Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)
Signed 14 October 1920
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=10, day2=14, year2=1920)
, Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty
Signed 11 August 1920
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=8, day2=11, year2=1920)
, Peace of Riga
Signed 17 September 1921
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=9, day2=17, year2=1921)
,

Treaty of Kars

Signed 13 October 1921
({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=11, day1=7, year1=1917, month2=9, day2=13, year2=1921)

, place = Former Russian Empire,

West Ukraine

, Mongolia, Tuva, Persia
, result = {{Ubl
,

Bolshevik

victory:
* Collapse of the Russian Republic and Russian State
* Murder of the Russian Imperial family
* Defeat of the White movement and its exodus
* Creation of the Soviet Union in most of the former Empire
* Creation of Bolshevist

Mongolian

and Tuvan states
* Expulsion of many prominent Russian intellectuals and activists
* Beginning of anti-Bolshevik resistance
{{Ubl
, Partial victory by independence movements:{{cite book, last=Bullock, first=David, title=The Russian Civil War 1918–22., publisher=Osprey Publishing, year=2008, isbn=978-1-84603-271-4, location=Oxford, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ{{rp, 7
*

Finland

,

Estonia

,

Latvia

, Lithuania, and Poland gain independence
*

Ukraine

, Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldavia and many other nations of the former Russian Empire are either annexed by the Bolsheviks or by other nations
* Bolshevist puppet states in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland defeated
, territory = {{Collapsible list
, bullets = yes
, title = Cessions to

Bolshevist

states
, Establishment of the Soviet Union
, Establishment of

Mongolian

and Tuvan republics
, Cession of Russia proper,

Kuban

, Don, Eastern Karelia,

Siberia

and

Far East

; Central, Southern, and Eastern Ukraine; Eastern Belarus, Northern Caucasus, Transcaucasia and

Central Asia

to the Soviet Union
, Joint Sino-Soviet administration of the

Chinese Eastern Railway

until 1952
, Cession of Uryankhay Krai to Tuva
, Cession of Bogd Khanate to Mongolia

{{Collapsible list
, bullets = yes
, title = Cessions to national separatists
, Independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland
, Cession of Vistula, Western Belarus and Western Ukraine to Poland
, Cession of

Grand Duchy

and Petsamo to Finland
, Cession of Autonomous Governorate to Estonia
, Cession of Southern Livonia and

Courland

to Latvia
, Cession of Northern Vilna and

Kovno Governorate

to Lithuania

{{Collapsible list
, bullets = yes
, title = Cessions to other nations
, Cession of Bessarabia to Romania
, Cession of

Kars

to Turkey
, Cession of concessions in Tianjin and

Hankou

to China

, combatant1 = {{Ubl
, Bolsheviks:
, {{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918 Russian SFSR
{{small, (1917–22)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1929).svg

Ukrainian SSR

{{small, ({{flagicon image, Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic of the Soviets.svg, size=15px 1917–18; 1918; 1919–22)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1927).svg Belarusian SSR
{{small, ({{flagicon image, Red flag.svg, size=15px 1919; 1920–22)
, {{flagicon image, Ru transcaucasia1922.png Transcaucasian SFSR {{small, (1922)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Soviet Union
{{small, (after 1922)

{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Bolshevist quasi-states{{nobold, :
, {{flagicon image, Socialist red flag.svg Bessarabian SSR
({{small, 1919)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Finnish SWR
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg D-KRSR
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Odessa SR
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Taurida SSR
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg

Baku Commune

{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Commune of the Working People of Estonia.svg Estonian Commune
{{small, (1918–19)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920).svg Latvian SSR
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg Lithuanian SSR
{{small, (1918–19)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg Litbel
{{small, (1919)
, {{flagdeco, Far Eastern Republic

Far Eastern Republic

{{small, (1920–22)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Galician SSR.svg Galician SSR
{{small, (1920)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Soviet Polish SRC
{{small, (1920)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic.svg Persian SSR
{{small, (1920–21)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922).svg Armenian SSR
{{small, (1920–22)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1920).svg Azerbaijan SSR
{{small, (1920–22)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1922).svg Georgian SSR
{{small, (1921–22)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Khiva 1920-1923.svg Khorezm People's Soviet Republic, Khorezm PSR
{{small, (after 1920)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic.svg Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, Bukharan PSR
{{small, (after 1920)

----
{{ubl
, Supported by:
, {{Flagicon image, Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (Pre-1996).svg Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in the Russian Civil War, Chinese communists
{{small, (1917–23)
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Latvian Riflemen#Red Latvian Riflemen, Red Latvian Riflemen
{{small, (1917–20)
{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Also{{nobold, :
, {{flag, Lithuania{{Efn, Soviet-Polish War.
{{small, (1919–20)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1921-1924).svg Mongolian People's Party, MPP
{{small, (1920–23)
, combatant2 = {{Ubl
, {{nowrap, {{flagicon, Russian Republic Russian Republic{{Efn, ''De facto'' deposed after the Bolshevik Coup of November 1917; formally abolished in January 1918 after the dissolution of the Russian Constituent Assembly, Constituent Assembly.
{{small, (1917–18)
----
{{Ubl
, White movement, White Guardsmen{{nobold, :
, {{flagdeco, Russia General Command of the Armed Forces of South Russia, South Russia
{{small, (1918–19; South Russian Government, Mar–Apr,
Government of South Russia, Apr–Nov 1920)
, {{flagdeco, Russia Russian State
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flagdeco, Russia Eastern Okraina
{{small, (1920)
, {{flagdeco, Russia Provisional Priamurye Government, Priamurye Govt.
{{small, (1921–23)

{{Collapsible list
, bullets = on
, title = {{nowrap, Local forces{{nobold, :
, Provisional Regional Government of the Urals, Ural Govt.
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Provisional Siberian Government.svg Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk), Omsk Siberian Govt.
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Provisional Siberian Government.svg Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok), Vladivostok Siberian Govt.
{{small, (1918)
, Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly, Komuch
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon, Russia Supreme Administration of the Northern Region, North Russia
{{small, (1918, Provisional Government of the Northern Region, 1918–20)
, {{flagdeco, Russia Regional Government of Northwest Russia, Northwest Russia {{small, (1918–19)

, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Crimean Regional_Government.svg Crimean Regional Government, Crimea
{{small, (1918–19)
, {{flagicon, Don Republic Don Republic
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg Kuban People's Republic, Kuban Republic
{{small, (1918–20)

----
{{ubl
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, Supported by:
, {{flagicon image, AlashOrdaFlagIn.png Alash Autonomy, Alash Orda
{{small, (1917–18)
, Bogd Khanate, Mongolia
{{small, (1921)
, combatant3 = {{ubl
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War, Separatists:
, {{flagdeco, Poland, 1919 Poland
{{small, (Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918), 1917–18; 1918–21)
, {{flag, Finland
{{small, (1917–20)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg

Ukraine

{{small, (1918–20)
{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Also{{nobold, :
, 1={{flag, Estonia
{{small, (1918–20)
, 2={{flag, Latvia
{{small, (1918–20)
, 3={{flag, Lithuania
{{small, (1918–20)
, 4={{flagicon image, Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991–1995).svg Belarus
{{small, (1918–19)
, 5={{flagicon image, Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg West Ukrainian People's Republic, West Ukraine
{{small, (1918–19)
, 6={{flagicon image, Flaga Litwy Środkowej.svg, 23px Republic of Central Lithuania, Central Lithuania
{{small, (1920–22)
, 7={{flagicon image, Flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic.svg, 23px Moldavia
{{small, (1917–18)
, 8=Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, Transcaucasia
{{small, (1918)
, 9={{flagicon image, Flag of Georgia (1918-1921).svg Democratic Republic of Georgia, Georgia
{{small, (1918–21)
, 10={{flagicon image, Flag of the First Republic of Armenia.svg First Republic of Armenia, Armenia
{{small, (1918–20; Republic of Mountainous Armenia, 1921)
, 11={{flagicon image, Flag of the Turkestan (Kokand) Autonomy.svg Turkestan Autonomy, Turkestan
{{small, (1917–18)
, 12={{flagicon image, Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg Centrocaspian Dictatorship, Centrocaspia
{{small, (1918)
, 13={{flagicon image, Flag of the Republic of Aras.svg Republic of Aras, Aras
{{small, (1918–19)
, 14={{flagicon image, Flag of North Caucasian Emirate.svg North Caucasian Emirate, Caucasian Emirate
{{small, (1919–20)
, 15={{flagicon image, Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg Azerbaijan
{{small, (1918–20)
, 16={{flagicon image, Flag of the Mountain Republic.svg Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus, Northern Caucasus
{{small, (1917–21)
, 17={{flagicon image, Flag of Green Ukraine.svg Green Ukraine
{{small, (1918–22)
, 18=State of Buryat-Mongolia, Buryat-Mongolia
{{small, (1917–21)
, 19={{flagicon image, flag of the German Empire.svg Yakut revolt (1918), Yakutia
{{small, (1918)
, 20= Karakorum Government, Altai
{{small, (1917–20; 1921–22)
, 23={{flagicon image, Karelian National Flag.svg Republic of Uhtua, Karelia
{{small, (1918–20; Olonets Government of Southern Karelia, 1920; Karelian United Government, 1920–23)
, 24={{flagicon image, Ingrian people.svg North Ingria
{{small, (1919–20)
, 27= Basmachi movement, Basmachi
{{small, (1918–22)
, 28= Emirate of Bukhara, Bukhara
{{small, (1920)
, 29={{flagicon image, Flag of the Khanate of Khiva.svg Khanate of Khiva, Khiva
{{small, (1918–20)
----
{{Ubl
, Supported by:
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Sweden.svg Kingdom of Sweden, Sweden{{efn, Finnish Civil War
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Hungary (1915-1918, 1919-1946).svg First Hungarian Republic, Hungary{{efn, Polish-Soviet War
{{small, (1919–20)
, {{nowrap, {{flagicon image, Flag of China (1912–1928).svg China
{{small, (1921)
, {{flagicon image, State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg, 23px Persia
{{small, (1919–20)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Afghanistan (1919–1921).svg Emirate of Afghanistan, Afghanistan{{efn, Basmachi movement
{{small, (until 1922)

, combatant1a = {{Ubl
, Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks, Anarchists:
, {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, Left SRs{{Efn, Aligned with the Bolsheviks until March 1918, when they fell out over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Most Left SRs opposed the Bolsheviks afterward, but a minority of Left SRs remained allied to the Bolsheviks for years after.
{{small, (1917–21)
, {{flagicon image, Darker green and Black flag.svg Green armies, Green Army{{Efn, Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1919; opposed after.
{{small, (1918–21)
, {{flagicon image, Махновское знамя.svg Makhnovia{{Efn, Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1920; opposed after.
{{small, (1918–21)
, {{flagicon image, Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg Kronstadt rebellion, Kronstadt
{{small, (1921)

, combatant2a = {{Ubl
, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Entente Powers:
, {{flagcountry, Empire of Japan{{Efn, Japan also stayed in North Sakhalin Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention, until 1925.
{{small, (1918–22)
, {{flagcountry, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flag, United States, 1912
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flagcountry, First Czechoslovak Republic
{{small, (1918–20)

{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Also{{nobold, :
, {{flagcountry, French Third Republic
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flagcountry, Kingdom of Greece, state
, {{flagcountry, Kingdom of Serbia, name=Serbia
{{small, ({{flagicon, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, size=15px Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, after 1918)
, {{flagcountry, Kingdom of Romania
, {{flagcountry, Kingdom of Italy
, {{flagdeco, Republic of China (1912-1949), 1912 China
, {{flag, Canada, 1868
{{small, (1918–19)
, {{flag, Australia
{{small, (1918–19)
, {{flag, British Raj, name=India
, {{flag, Union of South Africa, name=South Africa, 1912

, combatant3a = {{Ubl
, {{nowrap, Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War, Central Powers:
, {{nowrap, {{flagcountry, German Empire, name=Germany
{{small, (1917–18; {{flagicon, Weimar Republic, size=15px Weimar Republic, 1919)
, {{nowrap, {{flagcountry, Austria-Hungary
{{small, (1917–18)
, {{nowrap, {{flagcountry, Ottoman Empire
{{small, (1917–18; {{flagicon, Turkey, size=15px Government of the Grand National Assembly, 1920–21)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg Freikorps in the Baltic, Freikorps
{{small, (1918–19)

{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Collaborators{{nobold, :
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Ukranian State.svg Ukrainian State
{{small, (1918)
, {{flagicon image, Baltic German.svg Baltische Landeswehr, Landeswehr
{{small, (1918–20)
, {{flagicon image, WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg, size=23px West Russian Volunteer Army, Bermontians
{{small, (1918–20){{efn, Official allegiance to the Russian State
Unofficial allegiance to the German Empire

, commander1 = {{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Vladimir Lenin
{{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Leon Trotsky
{{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Jukums Vācietis
{{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Yakov Sverdlov{{KIA, Spanish flu
{{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Sergey Kamenev
{{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Nikolai Podvoisky, N. Podvoisky
{{flagdeco, Russian SFSR, 1918{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Joseph Stalin
{{flagicon image, Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1929).svg{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Yukhym Medvedev, Y. Medvedev
{{flagicon image, Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1919-1927).svg{{flagicon image, Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg Vilhelm Knorin
{{flagicon image, Flag of Far Eastern Republic.svg Alexander Krasnoshchyokov, A. Krasnoshchyokov
, commander2 = {{nowrap, {{flagdeco, Russia Alexander Kerensky, A. Kerensky{{Surrendered
{{nowrap, {{flagdeco, Russia Alexander Kolchak{{Executed
{{flagdeco, Russia Lavr Kornilov{{KIA
{{flagdeco, Russia Anton Denikin
{{flagdeco, Russia Pyotr Wrangel
{{flagdeco, Russia Nikolai Yudenich
{{flagdeco, Russia Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov, Grigory Semyonov
{{flagdeco, Russia Yevgeny Miller
{{flagdeco, Russia{{flagicon, Don Republic Pyotr Krasnov
{{flagdeco, Russia Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, R. von Ungern{{KIA
, commander3 = {{nowrap, {{flagicon, Poland Józef Piłsudski
{{nowrap, {{flagicon, Finland C.G.E. Mannerheim
{{flagicon image, Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg Symon Petliura
{{flagdeco, Estonia Konstantin Päts
{{flagdeco, Latvia Jānis Čakste
{{nowrap, {{flagdeco, Lithuania Antanas Smetona
{{flagdeco, Belarus, 1991, link=no Jan Sierada
{{flagicon image, Flag of Georgia (1918-1921).svg Noe Zhordania
{{flagicon image, Flag of the First Republic of Armenia.svg Alexander Khatisian, A. Khatisian
{{flagicon image, Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg Nasib bey Yusifbeyli, Nasib Yusifbeyli
, commander1a = {{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Vladimir Vol'skii, Vladimir Volsky
{{flagicon image, Red flag.svg Maria Spiridonova
{{flagicon image, Darker green and Black flag.svg Nikifor Grigoriev{{KIA, Killed in Action
{{flagicon image, Махновское знамя.svg Nestor Makhno
{{flagicon image, Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko, Stepan Petrichenko
{{small, Leaders of the Russian Civil War, …''and others''
, commander2a = {{flagdeco, Japan Otani Kikuzo
{{flagdeco, United Kingdom Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside, Edmund Ironside
{{flagdeco, United States, 1912 William S. Graves
{{flagicon, Czechoslovakia Radola Gajda
{{flagdeco, France, 1830 Maurice Janin
{{small, …''and others''
, commander3a = {{flagicon, German Empire Hermann von Eichhorn, H. von Eichhorn{{KIA
{{flagicon, Ottoman Empire Nuri Killigil, Nuri Pasha
{{flagicon image, Flag of the Ukranian State.svg Pavlo Skoropadskyi
{{flagicon image, Baltic German.svg Rüdiger von der Goltz, R. von der Goltz
{{nowrap, {{flagicon image, WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg, size=23px Pavel Bermondt-Avalov, P. Bermondt-Avalov
{{small, …''and others''
, strength1 = {{Ubl
, Red Army:
5,498,000 {{small, (peak){{sfn, Erickson, 1984, p=763{{efn, The Red Army peaked in October 1920 with 5,498,000: 2,587,000 in reserves, 391,000 in labor armies, 159,000 on the front and 1,780,000 drawing rations
----
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon image, Death to oppressors of workers.svg Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, Black Army:
103,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg Green armies, Green Army:
70,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg Kronstadt rebellion, Kronstadt Mutineers:
17,961
, strength2 = {{Ubl
, White Army:
1,023,000 {{small, (peak){{efn, 683,000 active
340,000 reserve
{{Collapsible list
, bullets = no
, title = Local forces{{nobold, :
, Armed Forces of South Russia, AFSR: 270,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Siberia (unofficial).png Siberian Army: 60,000 {{small, (peak)
, People's Army of Komuch, Komuch Army: 30,000 {{small, (peak)
, Northwestern Army (Russia), Northwestern Army: 18,500 {{small, (peak)
, Northern Army (Russia), Northern Army: 54,700 {{small, (peak)
, Western Army of the White Movement, Western Army: 48,000 {{small, (peak)
, Orenburg Independent Army, Orenburg Army: 25,000 {{small, (peak)
, Ural Army: 17,200 {{small, (peak)
----
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon image, War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army (1868–1945).svg Imperial Japanese Army, Japanese Army: 70,000 {{small, (peak)
, Czechoslovak Legion: 50,000 {{small, (peak)
{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Also{{nobold, :
, {{flagicon, United States, 1912 American Expeditionary Force, Siberia, AEF, Siberia:
7,950
, {{flagicon, United Kingdom, 1801 British Army:
57,636
, {{flagicon, Kingdom of Romania Romanian Army:
50,000
, {{flagicon, France, 1830 French Army:
15,600
, {{flagicon, Kingdom of Greece, state Hellenic Army:
23,000
, {{flagicon, Canada, 1868 Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force, CSEF:
~5,000
, {{flagicon, United States, 1912 American Expeditionary Force, North Russia, AEF, North Russia:
5,000
, {{flagicon image, Flag_of_Italy_(1860).svg Legione Redenta:
2,500
, Beiyang Army:
2,300
, {{flagicon, Kingdom of Serbia Serbian Army:
2,000
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Royal Indian Army.svg British Indian Army:
950
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australian Army:
150
, strength3 = {{Ubl
, Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic), Polish Army: ~1,000,000 {{small, (peak)
, Finnish Army:
90,000 {{small, (peak)
{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Also{{nobold, :
, Ukrainian People's Army, Ukrainian Army: 100,000 {{small, (peak)
----
Supported by:
, Royal Hungarian Army, Hungarian Army:
30,000 {{small, (peak)
----
, Latvian National Armed Forces, Latvian Army:
69,232 {{small, (peak)
, Estonian Defence Forces, Estonian Army:
86,000 {{small, (peak)
, Lithuanian Armed Forces, Lithuanian Army:
20,000 {{small, (peak)
----
, {{flagicon, Finland, size=15px White Guard (Finland), Finnish Volunteers:
8,000 {{small, (peak)
, Forest Guerrillas:
2,000 {{small, (peak)
----
, Swedish Brigade:
1,000 {{small, (peak)
----
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon image, Kaiserstandarte.svg German Army (German Empire), German Army:
~547,000 {{small, (peak)
{{Collapsible list
, framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
, title = Also{{nobold, :
, {{flagicon image, Flag_of_Germany_(3-2_aspect_ratio).svg Weimar Republic, Saxon Volunteers:
10,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg Islamic Army of the Caucasus, Caucasus Army:
20,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of Turkey.svg Turkish Land Forces, Turkish Army:
20,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg Freikorps in the Baltic, Iron Division:
14,000 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, Baltic German.svg Baltische Landeswehr, Landeswehr:
10,500 {{small, (peak)
, {{flagicon image, WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg West Russian Volunteer Army, Bermontians:
50,000 {{small, (peak)
, casualties1 = {{Ubl
, {{flagicon image, Red Army flag.svg ~1,500,000
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 259,213 killed
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 60,059 missing
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 616,605 died of disease/wounds
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 3,878 died in accidents/suicides
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 548,857 wounded/frostbitten{{sfn, Krivosheev, 1997, p=7-38{{efn, There were an additional 6,242,926 hospitalizations from sickness.
, casualties2 = {{ubl
, {{flagdeco, Russia ~1,500,000
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 127,000 killed
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 784,000 executed/dead
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
* 450,000 wounded/sick
{{citation needed , date=October 2020
----
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon, Czechoslovakia 13,000 killed
, {{flagdeco, Empire of Japan 6,500 killed
, {{flagicon, United Kingdom 938+ killed
, {{flagicon, United States, 1912 596 killed
, {{flagicon, Romania 350 killed
, {{flagicon, Greece, 1918 179 killed
, casualties3 = {{Ubl
, {{flagicon, Poland, 1919 ~400,000
* 57,000 killed
* 113,000 wounded
* 50,000 POWs
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon, Ukraine ~125,000
* 15,000 killed
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon, Finland ~5,000
* 3,500 killed
* 1,650 executed/dead
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon, Estonia 3,888 killed
, {{flagicon, Latvia 3,046 killed
, {{flagicon, Lithuania 1,444 killed
, {{flagicon, Sweden 55 killed
----
{{Ubl
, {{flagicon, German Empire 500 killed
, casualties4 = 7,000,000–12,000,000 total casualties, including
civilians and non-combatants

1–2 million White émigré, refugees outside Russia
, campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War ( rus, links=no, Гражданская война в России, Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossii; 7 November 1917 – 16 June 1923) was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the overthrowing of the monarchy and a new republican government's failure to maintain stability, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future, resulting in the formation of the Communism, communist Soviet Union on most of its territory. Its finale marked the end of the Russian Revolution, which was one of the key events of the 20th-century.

The Russian monarchy had been overthrown with the 1917 February Revolution, and Russia was in a state of political flux. A tense summer culminated in the Bolsheviks, Bolshevik led October Revolution, overthrowing the Russian Provisional Government, Provisional Government of the Russian Republic. Bolshevik rule was not universally accepted, and the country descended into civil war. The two largest combatant groups were the Red Army, fighting for the Bolshevik form of socialism led by Vladimir Lenin, and the loosely allied forces known as the White movement, White Army, which included diverse interests favouring political monarchism, capitalism and social democracy, each with democracy, democratic and Criticism of democracy, anti-democratic variants. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably Makhnovia anarchists and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, Left SRs, as well as non-ideological Green armies, opposed the Reds, the Whites and foreign interventionists.Russian Civil War
Encyclopædia Britannica Online 2012 Thirteen foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the former Allies of World War I, Allied military forces from the World War I, World War with the goal of re-establishing the Eastern Front (World War I), Eastern Front. Three foreign nations of the Central Powers also intervened, rivaling the Allied intervention with the main goal of retaining the territory they had received in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the country. They made Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, an emergency peace with the German Empire, who had captured vast swathes of Russia in the chaos of the revolution and the context of World War I. In May 1918, the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion, revolted in Siberia. In reaction, the Allies began an intervention in North Russia intervention, Northern Russia and Siberian intervention, Siberia. That, combined with the creation of the Provisional All-Russian Government, saw the reduction of the Bolsheviks to most of European Russia and parts of

Central Asia

. In November, Alexander Kolchak launched a coup to take control of the Russian State, establishing a ''de facto'' military dictatorship.

The White Army launched several attacks from Spring offensive of the White Army, the East in March, Advance on Moscow (1919), the South in July, and Battle of Petrograd, West in October 1919. The advances were later checked with the Eastern Front counteroffensive, the Southern Front counteroffensive, and defeat of the Northwestern Army (Russia), Northwestern Army. The White Movement also suffered greater loss as the Allies pulled back from North and South Russia. With the main base of the Russian SFSR secured, the Soviets could now strike back.

The armies under Kolchak were eventually forced on a Great Siberian Ice March, mass retreat east. Soviet forces advanced east, despite encountering resistance in Chita Operations, Chita, Yakut revolt, Yakut and Soviet intervention in Mongolia, Mongolia. Soon the Red Army split the Don Army, Don and Volunteer Army, Volunteer armies, forcing an evacuation in Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920), Novorossiysk in March and Evacuation of the Crimea (1920), Crimea in November 1920. After that, anti-Bolshevik resistance was sporadic for several years until the collapse of the White Army in Yakutia in June 1923, but went on in Basmachi movement, Central Asia and Tungus Republic, Khabarovsk Krai until 1934. There were an estimated 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.{{rp, 287

Many Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War, pro-independence movements emerged after the break-up of the Russian Empire and fought in the war.{{rp, 7 Several parts of the former Russian Empire—

Finland

,

Estonia

,

Latvia

, Lithuania, and Poland—were established as sovereign states, with their own civil wars and wars of independence. The rest of the former Russian Empire History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27), was consolidated into the Soviet Union shortly afterwards.

Background

World War I

{{Main, World War I
The Russian Empire fought in World War I from 1914 alongside French Third Republic, France and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom (Triple Entente) against German Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary and later the Ottoman Empire (Central Powers).

February Revolution

{{Main, February Revolution
The February Revolution of 1917 resulted in the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia. As a result, the Russian Provisional Government was established, and Soviet (council), soviets, elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of dual power. Russia was proclaimed a Russian Republic, republic in September of the same year.

October Revolution

{{Main, October Revolution
The Provisional Government, led by Socialist Revolutionary Party politician Alexander Kerensky, was unable to solve the most pressing issues of the country, most importantly to end the war with the Central Powers. A Kornilov affair, failed military coup by General Lavr Kornilov in September 1917 led to a surge in support for the Bolsheviks, Bolshevik party, who gained majorities in the soviets, which until then had been controlled by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Promising an end to the war and "all power to the Soviets", the Bolsheviks then ended dual power by suppressing the Provisional Government in late October, on the eve of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in what would be the second Revolution of 1917. Despite the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, they lost to the Socialist Revolutionary Party in the 1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election, and the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks soon lost the support of other Far-left politics, far-left allies such as the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries after their acceptance of the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk presented by Germany.{{Cite encyclopedia, last=Stone, first=David R., title=Russian Civil War (1917–1920), year=2011, encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of War, pages=wbeow533, editor-last=Martel, editor-first=Gordon, publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd, language=en, doi=10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow533, isbn=978-1-4051-9037-4

Formation of the Red Army

{{Main, Red Army
From mid-1917 onwards, the Russian Army (1917), Russian Army, the successor-organisation of the old Imperial Russian Army, started to disintegrate; the Bolsheviks used the volunteer-based Red Guards (Russia), Red Guards as their main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the Cheka (the Bolshevik state security apparatus). In January 1918, after significant Bolshevik reverses in combat, the future People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Russian SFSR, People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, Leon Trotsky headed the reorganization of the Red Guards into a ''Workers' and Peasants' Red Army'' in order to create a more effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks appointed political commissars to each unit of the Red Army to maintain morale and to ensure loyalty.

In June 1918, when it had become apparent that a revolutionary army composed solely of workers would not suffice, Trotsky instituted mandatory Conscription in the Soviet Union, conscription of the rural peasantry into the Red Army. The Bolsheviks overcame opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance. The forced conscription drive had mixed results, successfully creating a larger army than the Whites, but with members indifferent towards Marxism–Leninism, Marxist–Leninist ideology.

The Red Army also utilized former Tsarist officers as "military specialists" (''voenspetsy'');{{harvnb, Overy, 2004, p=446 By the end of the civil war, one-third of all Red Army officers were ex-Tsarist ''voenspetsy''" sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty.Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN, 978-0-631-15083-1 At the start of the civil war, former Tsarist officers formed three-quarters of the Red Army officer-corps. By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.

Anti-Bolshevik movement

{{Main, White movement, Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War, Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks

While resistance to the Red Guards began on the very day after the Bolshevik uprising, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the instinct of one-party rule became a catalyst{{sfn, Thompson, 1996, p=159 for the formation of anti-Bolshevik groups both inside and outside Russia, pushing them into action against the new Soviet government.

A loose confederation of anti-Bolshevik forces aligned against the Communist government, including landowners, Republicanism, republicans, conservatives, middle-class citizens, reactionary, reactionaries, monarchist, pro-monarchists, Liberalism, liberals, army generals, non-Bolshevik socialists who still had grievances and democratic reformists voluntarily united only in their opposition to Bolshevik rule. Their military forces, bolstered by White Terror (Russia), forced conscriptions and terror as well as foreign influence, under the leadership of General Nikolai Yudenich, Admiral Alexander Kolchak and General Anton Denikin, became known as the White movement (sometimes referred to as the "White Army") and controlled significant parts of the former Russian Empire for most of the war.

A Ukrainian People's Republic, Ukrainian nationalist movement was active in Ukraine during the war. More significant was the emergence of an anarchist political and military movement known as the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine or the Anarchist Black Army led by Nestor Makhno. The Black Army, which counted numerous Jews and Ukrainian peasants in its ranks, played a key part in halting Denikin's White Army offensive towards Moscow during 1919, later ejecting White forces from Crimea.

The remoteness of the Volga Region, the Ural Region,

Siberia

and the

Far East

was favorable for the anti-Bolshevik forces, and the Whites set up a number of organizations in the cities of those regions. Some of the military forces were set up on the basis of clandestine officers organizations in the cities.

The Czechoslovak Legions had been part of the Russian Army and numbered around 30,000 troops by October 1917. They had an agreement with the new Bolshevik government to be evacuated from the Eastern Front (World War I), Eastern Front via the port of Vladivostok to France. The transport from the Eastern Front to Vladivostok slowed down in the chaos, and the troops became dispersed all along the Trans-Siberian Railway. Under pressure from the Central Powers, Trotsky ordered the disarming and arrest of the legionaries, which created tensions with the Bolsheviks.

The Western Allies armed and supported opponents of the Bolsheviks. They were worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good on their threats to default on Imperial Russia's massive External debt, foreign loans and the possibility that Communist revolutionary ideas would spread (a concern shared by many Central Powers). Hence, many of the countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. Winston Churchill declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". The British and French had supported Russia during World War I on a massive scale with war materials.

Allied intervention

{{Main, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
After the treaty, it looked like much of that material would fall into the hands of the Germans. To meet that danger, the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Allies intervened with Great Britain and France sending troops into Russian ports. There were violent clashes with the Bolsheviks. Britain intervened in support of the White forces to defeat the Bolsheviks and prevent the spread of communism across Europe.

Buffer states

The German Empire created several short-lived satellite state, satellite buffer states within its sphere of influence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: the United Baltic Duchy, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918), Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, Kingdom of Lithuania (1918), Kingdom of Lithuania, Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918), Kingdom of Poland, the Belarusian People's Republic, and the Ukrainian State. Following Germany´s Armistice in World War I in November 1918, the states were abolished.

History of Finland, Finland was the first republic that Finnish Declaration of Independence, declared its Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War, independence from Russia in December 1917 and established itself in the ensuing Finnish Civil War from January–May 1918. The Second Polish Republic, History of Lithuania, Lithuania, History of Latvia, Latvia and History of Estonia, Estonia formed their own armies immediately after the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the start of the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919, Soviet westward offensive in November 1918.

Geography and chronology

{{Main, Southern Front of the Russian Civil War, North Russia Campaign, Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War, Yakut Revolt, Finnish Civil War
In the European part of Russia the war was fought across three main fronts: the eastern, the southern and the northwestern. It can also be roughly split into the following periods.

The first period lasted from the Revolution until the Armistice. Already on the date of the Revolution, Cossack General Alexey Kaledin refused to recognize it and assumed full governmental authority in the Don River, Russia, Don region, where the Volunteer Army began amassing support. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also resulted in direct Allied intervention in Russia and the arming of military forces opposed to the Bolshevik government. There were also many German commanders who offered support against the Bolsheviks, fearing a confrontation with them was impending as well.

During the first period, the Bolsheviks took control of

Central Asia

out of the hands of the Provisional Government and White Army, setting up a base for the Communist Party in the Eurasian Steppe, Steppe and Russian Turkestan, Turkestan, where nearly two million Russian settlers were located.{{sfn, Wheeler, 1964, p=103

Most of the fighting in the first period was sporadic, involved only small groups and had a fluid and rapidly-shifting strategic situation. Among the antagonists were the Czechoslovak Legion, the Poles of the 4th Rifle Division (Poland), 4th and 5th Rifle Division (Poland), 5th Rifle Divisions and the pro-Bolshevik Latvian riflemen, Red Latvian riflemen.

The second period of the war lasted from January to November 1919. At first the White armies' advances from the south (under Denikin), the east (under Kolchak) and the northwest (under Yudenich) were successful, forcing the Red Army and its allies back on all three fronts. In July 1919 the Red Army suffered another reverse after a mass defection of units in the Crimea to the anarchist Black Army under Nestor Makhno, enabling anarchist forces to consolidate power in Ukraine. Leon Trotsky soon reformed the Red Army, concluding the first of two military alliances with the anarchists. In June the Red Army first checked Kolchak's advance. After a series of engagements, assisted by a Black Army offensive against White supply lines, the Red Army defeated Denikin's and Yudenich's armies in October and November.

The third period of the war was the extended siege of the last White forces in the

Crimea

. General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Wrangel had gathered the remnants of Denikin's armies, occupying much of the Crimea. An attempted invasion of southern Ukraine was rebuffed by the Black Army under Makhno's command. Pursued into Crimea by Makhno's troops, Wrangel went over to the defensive in the Crimea. After an abortive move north against the Red Army, Wrangel's troops were forced south by Red Army and Black Army forces; Wrangel and the remains of his army were evacuated to Istanbul, Constantinople in November 1920.

Warfare

October Revolution

{{Main, October Revolution

In the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Party directed the Red Guard (armed groups of workers and Imperial army deserters) to seize control of Saint Petersburg, Petrograd (Saint Petersburg) and immediately began the armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918 the Bolsheviks dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly and proclaimed the Soviets (workers' councils) as the new government of Russia.

Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings

{{Main, Kerensky-Krasnov uprising, Junker mutiny, Volunteer Army
The first attempt to regain power from the Bolsheviks was made by the Kerensky-Krasnov uprising in October 1917. It was supported by the Junker Mutiny in Petrograd but was quickly put down by the Red Guard, notably including the Latvian Rifle Division.

The initial groups that fought against the Communists were local Cossack armies that had declared their loyalty to the Provisional Government. Kaledin of the Don Cossacks and General Grigory Mikhailovich Semenov, Grigory Semenov of the Siberian Cossacks were prominent among them. The leading Tsarist officers of the Imperial Russian Army also started to resist. In November, General Mikhail Vasilevich Alekseev, Mikhail Alekseev, the Tsar's Chief of Staff during the First World War, began to organize the Volunteer Army in Novocherkassk. Volunteers of the small army were mostly officers of the old Russian army, military cadets and students. In December 1917, Alekseev was joined by General Lavr Kornilov, Denikin and other Tsarist officers who had escaped from the jail, where they had been imprisoned following the abortive Kornilov affair just before the Revolution.{{rp, 27 At the beginning of December 1917, groups of volunteers and Cossacks captured Rostov-on-Don, Rostov.

Having stated in the November 1917 "Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia, Declaration of Rights of Nations of Russia" that any nation under imperial Russian rule should be immediately given the power of self-determination, the Bolsheviks had begun to usurp the power of the Provisional Government in the territories of Central Asia soon after the establishment of the Turkestan Committee in Tashkent.{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, p=72 In April 1917 the Provisional Government set up the committee, which was mostly made up of former Tsarist officials.{{sfn, Wheeler, 1964, p=104 The Bolsheviks attempted to take control of the Committee in Tashkent on 12 September 1917 but it was unsuccessful, and many leaders were arrested. However, because the Committee lacked representation of the native population and poor Russian settlers, they had to release the Bolshevik prisoners almost immediately because of a public outcry, and a successful takeover of that government body took place two months later in November.{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, p=70 The Leagues of Mohammedam Working People, which Russian settlers and natives who had been sent to work behind the lines for the Tsarist government in 1916 formed in March 1917, had led numerous strikes in the industrial centers throughout September 1917.{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, pp=68–69 However, after the Bolshevik destruction of the Provisional Government in Tashkent, Muslim elites formed an autonomous government in Turkestan, commonly called the "Kokand autonomy" (or simply Kokand).{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, p=74 The White Russians supported that government body, which lasted several months because of Bolshevik troop isolation from Moscow.{{sfn, Allworth, 1967, p=226 In January 1918 the Soviet forces, under Lt. Col. Mikhail Artemyevich Muravyov, Muravyov, invaded Ukraine and invested Kiev, where the Central Council of Ukraine, Central Council of the Ukrainian People's Republic held power. With the help of the Kiev Arsenal January Uprising, Kiev Arsenal Uprising, the Bolsheviks captured the city on 26 January.{{rp, 35

Peace with the Central Powers

{{Main, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people before the Revolution. Vladimir Lenin's political enemies attributed that decision to his sponsorship by the Foreign Office of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, offered to Lenin in hope that, with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from World War I. That suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd. However, after the military fiasco of the summer offensive (June 1917) by the Russian Provisional Government had devastated the structure of the Russian Army, it became crucial that Lenin realize the promised peace. Even before the failed summer offensive the Russian population was very skeptical about the continuation of the war. Western socialists had promptly arrived from France and from the UK to convince the Russians to continue the fight, but could not change the new pacifist mood of Russia.

On 16 December 1917 an armistice was signed between Russia and the Central Powers in Brest-Litovsk and peace talks began.{{rp, 42 As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting nationalists and Conservatism, conservatives. Leon Trotsky, representing the Bolsheviks, refused at first to sign the treaty while continuing to observe a unilateral cease-fire, following the policy of "No war, no peace".{{sfn, Smith, Tucker, 2014, pp=554–555

Therefore, on 18 February 1918, the Germans began Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, encountering virtually no resistance in a campaign that lasted 11 days.{{sfn, Smith, Tucker, 2014, pp=554–555 Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks because the Russian Army was demobilized, and the newly formed Red Guard could not stop the advance. They also understood that the impending counterrevolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a world revolution. The Soviets acceded to a peace treaty, and the formal agreement, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was ratified on 3 March. The Soviets viewed the treaty as merely a necessary and expedient means to end the war.

Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)

{{Main, Ukrainian People's Republic, Kiev Arsenal January Uprising, Ice March, 26 Baku Commissars, German Caucasus Expedition, Battle of Baku, Central Caspian Dictatorship, Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia

In Ukraine the German-Austro-Hungary, Austrian Operation Faustschlag had by April 1918 removed the Bolsheviks from Ukraine.{{cite encyclopedia , url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine , title=Ukraine – World War I and the struggle for independence , access-date=2008-01-30 , encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica{{in lang, uk}
100 years ago Bakhmut and the rest of Donbas liberated
Ukrayinska Pravda (18 April 2018){{citation , last = Tynchenko , first = Yaros , title = The Ukrainian Navy and the Crimean Issue in 1917–18 , url = http://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648 , work = The Ukrainian Week , date = 23 March 2018 , access-date = October 14, 2018Germany Takes Control of Crimea
New York Herald (18 May 1918)War Without Fronts: Atamans and Commissars in Ukraine, 1917–1919
by Mikhail Akulov, Harvard University, August 2013 (page 102 and 103) The German and Austro-Hungarian victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolsheviks troops to their Austro-Hungarian and German counterparts.

Under Soviet pressure, the Volunteer Army embarked on the epic Ice March from Krasnodar, Yekaterinodar to

Kuban

on 22 February 1918, where they joined with the Kuban Cossacks to mount an abortive assault on Yekaterinodar.{{rp, 29 The Soviets recaptured Rostov on the next day.{{rp, 29 Kornilov was killed in the fighting on 13 April, and Denikin took over command. Fighting off its pursuers without respite, the army succeeded in breaking its way through back towards the Don, where the Cossack uprising against Bolsheviks had started.

The Baku Soviet Commune was established on 13 April. Germany landed its Caucasus Expedition troops in Poti on 8 June. The Ottoman Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire), Army of Islam (in coalition with Azerbaijan) drove them out of Baku on 26 July 1918. Subsequently, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Dashanaks, Right SRs and Mensheviks started negotiations with Gen. Lionel Dunsterville, Dunsterville, the commander of the British Empire, British troops in Persia. The Bolsheviks and their Left SR allies were opposed to it, but on 25 July the majority of the Soviets voted to call in the British and the Bolsheviks resigned. The Baku Soviet Commune ended its existence and was replaced by the Central Caspian Dictatorship.

In June 1918 the Volunteer Army, numbering some 9,000 men, started its Second Kuban campaign. Yekaterinodar was encircled on 1 August and fell on the 3rd. In September–October, heavy fighting took place at Armavir, Russia, Armavir and Stavropol. On 13 October Gen. Kazanovich's division took Armavir, and on 1 November Gen. Pyotr Wrangel secured Stavropol. This time, Red forces had no escape, and by early 1919, the whole Northern Caucasus was controlled by the Volunteer Army.

In October, General Alekseev, the leader of the White Armies in southern Russia died of a heart attack. An agreement was reached between Denikin, head of the Volunteer Army, and Pyotr Krasnov, Ataman of the Don Cossacks, to unite their forces under the sole command of Denikin. The Armed Forces of South Russia were thus created.

Eastern Russia, Siberia and Far East of Russia (1918)

{{Main, Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion, Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly, Provisional All-Russian Government
The revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion broke out in May 1918, and the legionaries took control of Chelyabinsk in June. Simultaneously Russian officers' organisations overthrew the Bolsheviks in Petropavlovsk (in present-day Kazakhstan) and in Omsk. Within a month the Czechoslovak Legion controlled most of the Trans-Siberian Railroad between Lake Baikal and the Ural (region), Ural regions. During the summer Bolshevik power in Siberia was eliminated. The Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia formed in Omsk. By the end of July, the Whites had extended their gains westwards, capturing Ekaterinburg on 26 July 1918. Shortly before the fall of Yekaterinburg on 17 July 1918, the former Tsar and his family were murdered by the Ural Soviet to prevent them from falling into the hands of the Whites.

The Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries supported peasants fighting against Soviet control of food supplies. In May 1918, with the support of the Czechoslovak Legion, they took Samara Oblast, Samara and Saratov, establishing the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly—known as the "Komuch". By July the authority of the Komuch extended over much of the area controlled by the Czechoslovak Legion. The Komuch pursued an ambivalent social policy, combining democratic and socialist measures, such as the institution of an eight hour day, eight-hour working day, with "restorative" actions, such as returning both factories and land to their former owners. After the fall of Kazan, Vladimir Lenin called for the dispatch of Petrograd workers to the Kazan Front: "We must send down the ''maximum'' number of Petrograd workers: (1) a few dozen 'leaders' like Benyamin Kayurov, Kayurov; (2) a few thousand militants 'from the ranks'".

After a series of reverses at the front, the Bolsheviks' War Commissar, Trotsky, instituted increasingly harsh measures in order to prevent unauthorised withdrawals, desertions and mutinies in the Red Army. In the field the Cheka special investigations forces, termed the ''Special Punitive Department of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combat of Counter-Revolution and Sabotage'' or ''Special Punitive Brigades'', followed the Red Army, conducting field tribunals and summary executions of soldiers and officers who deserted, retreated from their positions or failed to display sufficient offensive zeal. The Cheka special investigations forces were also charged with the detection of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity by Red Army soldiers and commanders. Trotsky extended the use of the death penalty to the occasional political commissar whose detachment retreated or broke in the face of the enemy.{{sfn, Volkogonov, 1996, p=175 In August, frustrated at continued reports of Red Army troops breaking under fire, Trotsky authorised the formation of barrier troops – stationed behind unreliable Red Army units and given orders to shoot anyone withdrawing from the battle line without authorisation.{{sfn, Volkogonov, 1996, p=180, ps=: By December 1918 Trotsky had ordered the formation of special detachments to serve as blocking units throughout the Red Army.

In September 1918 Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government and other local anti-Soviet governments met in Ufa and agreed to form a new Provisional All-Russian Government in Omsk, headed by a Directory of five: two Socialist-Revolutionaries (Nikolai Avksentiev and Vladimir Zenzinov), two Constitutional Democratic Party, Kadets (V. A. Vinogradov and PV Vologodskii) and General Vasily Boldyrev.

By the fall of 1918 anti-Bolshevik White forces in the east included the People's Army (Komuch), the Siberian Army (of the Siberian Provisional Government) and insurgent Cossack units of Orenburg, Ural, Siberia, Semirechye, Baikal, Amur and Ussuri Cossacks, nominally under the orders of Gen. V.G. Boldyrev, Commander-in-Chief, appointed by the Ufa Directorate.

On the Volga, Col. Vladimir Kappel, Kappel's White detachment captured Kazan on 7 August, but the Reds re-captured the city on 8 September 1918 following a counteroffensive. On the 11th Simbirsk fell, and on 8 October Samara, Russia, Samara. The Whites fell back eastwards to Ufa and Orenburg.

In Omsk the Russian Provisional Government quickly came under the influence and later the dominance of its new War Minister, Rear-Admiral Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak, Kolchak. On 18 November a coup d'état established Kolchak as dictator. The members of the Directory were arrested and Kolchak proclaimed the "Supreme Ruler of Russia". By mid-December 1918 White armies had to leave Ufa, but they balanced that failure with a successful drive towards Perm, Russia, Perm, which they took on 24 December.

Central Asia (1918)

In February 1918 the Red Army overthrew the White Russian-supported Kokand autonomy of Turkestan.{{sfn, Rakowska-Harmstone, 1970, p=19 Although that move seemed to solidify Bolshevik power in Central Asia, more troubles soon arose for the Red Army as the Allied Forces began to intervene. British support of the White Army provided the greatest threat to the Red Army in Central Asia during 1918. Britain sent three prominent military leaders to the area. One was Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Marshman Baile, who recorded a mission to Tashkent, from where the Bolsheviks forced him to flee. Another was General Wilfrid Malleson, leading the Malleson Mission, who assisted the Mensheviks in Ashkhabad (now the capital of Turkmenistan) with a small Anglo-Indian force. However, he failed to gain control of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva. The third was Major General Dunsterville, who was driven out by the Bolsheviks of Central Asia only a month after his arrival in August 1918.{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, p=75 Despite setbacks because of British invasions during 1918, the Bolsheviks continued to make progress in bringing the Central Asian population under their influence. The first regional congress of the Russian Communist Party convened in the city of Tashkent in June 1918 in order to build support for a local Bolshevik Party.{{sfn, Allworth, 1967, p=232

Left SR uprising

{{Main, Left SR uprising
In July two Left SR and Cheka employees, Yakov Blumkin, Blyumkin and Andreyev, assassinated the German ambassador, Count Wilhelm Mirbach, Mirbach. In Moscow a Left SR uprising was put down by the Bolsheviks, using Cheka military detachments. Lenin personally apologized to the Germans for the assassination. Mass arrests of Socialist-Revolutionaries followed.

Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd

{{Main, Estonian War of Independence, Latvian War of Independence, Battle of Petrograd
Estonia Estonian War of Independence, cleared its territory of the Red Army by January 1919. Baltische Landeswehr, Baltic German volunteers captured Riga from the Red Latvian Riflemen on 22 May, but the Estonian 3rd Division Battle of Cēsis (1919), defeated the Baltic Germans a month later, aiding the establishment of the Republic of Latvia.{{cite web, url=http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953, title=Generalkommando VI Reservekorps, publisher=Axis History

That rendered possible another threat to the Red Army, from General Yudenich, who had spent the summer organizing the Northwestern Army in Estonia with local and British support. In October 1919, he tried to capture Petrograd in a sudden assault with a force of around 20,000 men. The attack was well-executed, using night attacks and lightning cavalry maneuvers to turn the flanks of the defending Red Army. Yudenich also had six British tanks, which caused panic whenever they appeared. The Allies gave large quantities of aid to Yudenich, but he complained of receiving insufficient support.

By 19 October, Yudenich's troops had reached the outskirts of the city. Some members of the Bolshevik central committee in Moscow were willing to give up Petrograd, but Trotsky refused to accept the loss of the city and personally organized its defenses. Trotsky himself declared, "It is impossible for a little army of 15,000 ex-officers to master a working-class capital of 700,000 inhabitants." He settled on a strategy of urban defense, proclaiming that the city would "defend itself on its own ground" and that the White Army would be lost in a labyrinth of fortified streets and there "meet its grave".

Trotsky armed all available workers, men and women, ordering the transfer of military forces from Moscow. Within a few weeks, the Red Army defending Petrograd had tripled in size and outnumbered Yudenich three to one. Yudenich, short of supplies, then decided to call off the siege of the city and withdrew. He repeatedly asked permission to withdraw his army across the border to Estonia. However, units retreating across the border were disarmed and interned by orders of the Estonian government, which had entered into peace negotiations with the Soviet Government on 16 September and had been informed by the Soviet authorities of their 6 November decision that if the White Army was allowed to retreat into Estonia, it would be pursued across the border by the Reds.{{sfn, Rosenthal, 2006, p=516 In fact, the Reds attacked Estonian army positions and fighting continued until a ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1920. After the Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian), Treaty of Tartu. most of Yudenich's soldiers went into exile. Former Imperial Russian and then Finnish General Mannerheim planned an intervention to help the Whites in Russia capture Petrograd. However, he did not gain the necessary support for the endeavour. Lenin considered it "completely certain, that the slightest aid from Finland would have determined the fate of [the city]".

Northern Russia (1919)

{{Main, North Russia intervention
The British occupied Murmansk and, alongside the United States, Americans, seized Arkhangelsk. With the retreat of Kolchak in Siberia, they pulled their troops out of the cities before the winter trapped them in the port. The remaining White forces under Yevgeny Miller evacuated the region in February 1920.

Siberia (1919)

At the beginning of March 1919, the general offensive of the Whites on the eastern front began. Ufa was retaken on 13 March; by mid-April, the White Army stopped at the Glazov–Chistopol–Bugulma–Buguruslan–Sharlyk line. Reds started their counteroffensive against Kolchak's forces at the end of April. The Red 5th Army, led by the capable commander Tukhachevsky, captured Elabuga on 26 May, Sarapul on 2 June and Izevsk on the 7th and continued to push forward. Both sides had victories and losses, but by the middle of summer the Red Army was larger than the White Army and had managed to recapture territory previously lost.

Following the abortive offensive at Chelyabinsk, the White armies withdrew beyond the Tobol. In September 1919 a White offensive was launched against the Tobol front, the last attempt to change the course of events. However, on 14 October the Reds counterattacked, and thus began the uninterrupted Great Siberian Ice March, retreat of the Whites to the east. On 14 November 1919 the Red Army captured Omsk. Adm. Kolchak lost control of his government shortly after the defeat; White Army forces in Siberia essentially had ceased to exist by December. Retreat of the eastern front by White armies lasted three months, until mid-February 1920, when the survivors, after crossing Lake Baikal, reached Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai, Chita area and joined Ataman Semenov's forces.

South Russia (1919)

The Cossacks had been unable to organise and capitalise on their successes at the end of 1918. By 1919 they had begun to run short of supplies. Consequently, when the RSFSR, Soviet counteroffensive began in January 1919 under the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, Antonov-Ovseenko, the Cossack forces rapidly fell apart. The Red Army captured Kiev on 3 February 1919.

General Denikin's military strength continued to grow in the spring of 1919. During several months in winter and spring of 1919, Battle of the Donbas and Don (1919), hard fighting with doubtful outcomes took place in the Donbas, where the attacking Bolsheviks met White forces. At the same time Denikin's Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR) completed the elimination of Red forces in the northern Caucasus and advanced towards Volgograd, Tsaritsyn. At the end of April and beginning of May the AFSR attacked on all fronts from the Dnepr to the Volga, and by the beginning of the summer they had won numerous battles. French forces landed in Odessa but, after having done almost no fighting, withdrew on 8 April 1919. By mid-June, the Reds were chased from the Crimea and the Odessa area. Denikin's troops took the cities of Kharkov and Belgorod. At the same time White troops under Wrangel's command Battle for Tsaritsyn (1919), took Tsaritsyn on 17 June 1919. On 20 June Denikin issued his Moscow directive, ordering all AFSR units to prepare for a decisive offensive to take Moscow.

Although Britain had withdrawn its own troops from the theatre, it continued to give significant military aid (money, weapons, food, ammunition and some military advisers) to the White Armies during 1919. Major Ewen Cameron Bruce of the British Army had volunteered to command a British tank mission assisting the White Army. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his bravery during the June 1919 Battle of Tsaritsyn for single-handedly storming and capturing the fortified city of Tsaritsyn, under heavy shell fire in a single tank, which led to the capture of over 40,000 prisoners.{{sfn, Kinvig, 2006, p=225 The fall of Tsaritsyn is viewed "as one of the key battles of the Russian Civil War" and greatly helped the White Russian cause.{{sfn, Kinvig, 2006, p=225 The notable historian Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart comments that Bruce's tank action during the battle is to be seen as "one of the most remarkable feats in the whole history of the Tank Corps".Liddell Hart, Basil. "The Tanks: The History Of The Royal Tank Regiment And Its Predecessors, Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps And Royal Tank Corps, 1914–1945. Vol I". Cassell: 1959, p. 211.

After the capture of Tsaritsyn, Wrangel pushed towards Saratov but Trotsky, seeing the danger of the union with Aleksandr Kolchak, Kolchak against whom the Red command was concentrating large masses of troops, repulsed his attempts with heavy losses. When Kolchak's army in the east began to retreat in June and July, the bulk of the Red Army, free from any serious danger from Siberia, was directed against Denikin.

Denikin's forces constituted a real threat and for a time threatened to reach Moscow. The Red Army, stretched thin by fighting on all fronts, was forced out of Kiev on 30 August. Kursk and Oryol, Orel were taken, on 20 September and 14 October, respectively. The latter, only {{Convert, 205, mi, km from Moscow, was the closest the AFSR would come to its target.{{Sfn, Kenez, 1977, p=44 The Cossack Don Army under the command of General Vladimir Sidorin continued north towards Voronezh, but Semyon Budyonny's cavalrymen defeated them there on 24 October. That allowed the Red Army to cross the Don River (Russia), Don River, threatening to split the Don and Volunteer Armies. Fierce fighting took place at the key rail junction of Kastornoye, which was taken on 15 November. Kursk was retaken two days later.{{Sfn, Kenez, 1977, p=218

The high tide of the White movement against the Soviets had been reached in September 1919. By then Denikin's forces were dangerously overextended. The White front had no depth or stabilit but had become a series of patrols with occasional columns of slowly-advancing troops without reserves. Lacking ammunition, artillery and fresh reinforcements, Denikin's army was decisively defeated in a series of battles in October and November 1919. The Red Army recaptured Kiev on 17 December and the defeated Cossacks fled back towards the Black Sea.

While the White armies were being routed in Central Russia and the east, they had succeeded in driving Nestor Makhno's anarchist Black Army (formally known as the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine) out of part of southern Ukraine and the Crimea. Despite that setback, Moscow was loath to aid Makhno and the Black Army and refused to provide arms to anarchist forces in Ukraine. The main body of White forces, the Volunteers and the Don Army, pulled back towards the Don, to Rostov. The smaller body (Kiev and Odessa troops) withdrew to Odessa and the Crimea, which it had managed to protect from the Bolsheviks during the winter of 1919–1920.

Central Asia (1919)

By February 1919 the British government had pulled its military forces out of Central Asia.{{sfn, Allworth, 1967, p=231 Despite the success for the Red Army, the White Army's assaults in European Russia and other areas broke communication between Moscow and Tashkent. For a time Central Asia was completely cut off from Red Army forces in Siberia.{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, p=76 Although the communication failure weakened the Red Army, the Bolsheviks continued their efforts to gain support for the Bolshevik Party in Central Asia by holding a second regional conference in March. During the conference, a regional bureau of Muslim organisations of the Russian Bolshevik Party was formed. The Bolshevik Party continued to try to gain support among the native population by giving it the impression of better representation for the Central Asian population and throughout the end of the year could maintain harmony with the Central Asian people.{{sfn, Allworth, 1967, pp=232–233

Communication difficulties with Red Army forces in Siberia and European Russia ceased to be a problem by mid-November 1919. Red Army successes north of Central Asia caused communication with Moscow to be re-established and the Bolsheviks to claim victory over the White Army in Turkestan.{{sfn, Coates, Coates, 1951, p=76

In the Ural-Guryev operation of 1919–1920, the Red Turkestan Front defeated the Ural Army. During winter 1920, Ural Cossacks and their families, totaling about 15,000 people, headed south along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea towards Fort-Shevchenko, Fort Alexandrovsk. Only a few hundred of them reached Persia in June 1920. The Orenburg Independent Army was formed from Orenburg Cossacks and others troops who rebelled against the Bolsheviks. During the winter 1919–20, the Orenburg Army retreated to Semirechye in what is known as the Starving March, as half of the participants perished. In March 1920 her remnants crossed the border into the Northwestern region of China.

South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)

By the beginning of 1920, the main body of the Armed Forces of South Russia was rapidly retreating towards the Don, to Rostov. Denikin hoped to hold the crossings of the Don, then rest and reform his troops, but the White Army was not able to hold the Don area, and at the end of February 1920 started a retreat across Kuban towards Novorossiysk. Slipshod Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920), evacuation of Novorossiysk proved to be a dark event for the White Army. Russian and Allied ships evacuated about 40,000 of Denikin's men from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, without horses or any heavy equipment, while about 20,000 men were left behind and either dispersed or captured by the Red Army. Following the disastrous Novorossiysk evacuation, Denikin stepped down and the military council elected Wrangel as the new Commander-in-Chief of the White Army. He was able to restore order to the dispirited troops and reshape an army that could fight as a regular force again. It remained an organized force in the Crimea throughout 1920.

After Moscow's Bolshevik government signed a military and political alliance with Nestor Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists, the Black Army attacked and defeated several regiments of Wrangel's troops in southern Ukraine, forcing him to retreat before he could capture that year's grain harvest.

Stymied in his efforts to consolidate his hold, Wrangel then attacked north in an attempt to take advantage of recent Red Army defeats at the close of the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1920. The Red Army eventually halted the offensive, and Wrangel's troops had to retreat to Siege of Perekop (1920), Crimea in November 1920, pursued by both the Red and Black cavalry and infantry. Wrangel's fleet Evacuation of the Crimea (1920), evacuated him and his army to Constantinople on 14 November 1920, ending the struggle of Reds and Whites in Southern Russia.

After the defeat of Wrangel, the Red Army immediately repudiated its 1920 treaty of alliance with Nestor Makhno and attacked the anarchist Black Army; the campaign to liquidate Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists began with an attempted assassination of Makhno by Cheka agents. Anger at continued repression by the Bolshevik Communist government and at its liberal use of the Cheka to put down anarchist elements led to a naval mutiny at Kronstadt rebellion, Kronstadt in March 1921, followed by peasant revolts. Red Army attacks on the anarchist forces and their sympathisers increased in ferocity throughout 1921.

Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)

{{Main, Far Eastern Front in the Russian Civil War
In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak's army had disintegrated. He himself gave up command after the loss of Omsk and designated Gen. Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov, Grigory Semyonov as the new leader of the White Army in Siberia. Not long afterward, Kolchak was arrested by the disaffected Czechoslovak Corps as he traveled towards Irkutsk without the protection of the army and was turned over to the socialist Political Centre (Russia), Political Centre in Irkutsk. Six days later, the regime was replaced by a Bolshevik-dominated Military-Revolutionary Committee. On 6–7 February Kolchak and his prime minister Victor Pepelyaev were shot and their bodies were thrown through the ice of the frozen Angara River, just before the arrival of the White Army in the area.{{rp, 319–21

Remnants of Kolchak's army reached Transbaikalia and joined Semyonov's troops, forming the Far Eastern army. With the support of the Japanese army it was able to hold Chita, but after the withdrawal of Japanese soldiers from Transbaikalia, Semenov's position became untenable, and in November 1920 he was driven by the Red Army from Transbaikalia and took refuge in China. The Japanese, who had plans to annex the Amur Krai, finally pulled their troops out as Bolshevik forces gradually asserted control over the Russian Far East. On 25 October 1922 Vladivostok fell to the Red Army, and the Provisional Priamur Government was extinguished.

Aftermath

Ensuing rebellion

In Central Asia, Red Army troops continued to face resistance into 1923, where ''Basmachi Revolt, basmachi'' (armed bands of Islamic guerrillas) had formed to fight the Bolshevik takeover. The Soviets engaged non-Russian peoples in Central Asia, like Magaza Masanchi, commander of the Dungan Cavalry Regiment, to fight against the Basmachis. The Communist Party did not completely dismantle the group until 1934.{{sfn, Wheeler, 1964, p=107

General Anatoly Pepelyayev Yakut Revolt, continued armed resistance in the Ayano-Maysky District until June 1923. The regions of Kamchatka and Northern Sakhalin remained under Japanese occupation until their Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention, treaty with the Soviet Union in 1925, when their forces were finally withdrawn.

Casualties

{{See also, Red Terror (Russia), White Terror (Russia)
The results of the civil war were momentous. Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated the total number of men killed in action in the Civil War and Polish–Soviet War as 300,000 (125,000 in the Red Army, 175,500 White armies and Poles) and the total number of military personnel dead from disease (on both sides) as 450,000. Boris Sennikov estimated the total losses among the population of Tambov Oblast, Tambov region in 1920 to 1922 resulting from the war, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps as approximately 240,000.

During the Red Terror, estimates of Cheka executions range from 12,733 to 1.7 million. William Henry Chamberlin suspected that there were about 50,000.{{sfn, Chamberlin, 1987, p=75 Evan Mawdsley suspected that there were more than 12,733, and less than 200,000.{{rp, 286 Some sources claimed at least 250,000 summary executions of "enemies of the people" with estimates reaching above a million.Rummel, Rudolph
"Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917"
(1990).{{sfn, Andrew, Mitrokhin, 1999, p=28{{sfn, Overy, 2004, p=180 More modest estimates put the numbers executed by the Bolsheviks between December 1917 and February 1922 at around 28,000 per year, with roughly 10,000 executions during the Red Terror.{{sfn, Ryan, 2012, pp=2, 114

Some 300,000–500,000 Cossacks were killed or deported during Decossackization, out of a population of around three million.{{sfn, Gellately, 2007, pp=70–71 An estimated 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine, mostly by the White Army. Punitive organs of the All Great Don Cossack Host sentenced 25,000 people to death between May 1918 and January 1919.{{sfn, Holquist, 2002, p=164 Kolchak's government shot 25,000 people in Ekaterinburg province alone. The White Terror, as it would become known, killed about 300,000 people in total.

At the end of the Civil War the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Russian SFSR was exhausted and near ruin. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the Russian famine of 1921, 1921 famine, worsened the disaster still further, killing roughly 5 million people. Disease had reached pandemic proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of typhus throughout the war. Millions more also died of widespread starvation, wholesale massacres by both sides and pogroms against Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia. By 1922 there were at least 7,000,000 street children in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from World War I and the civil war.

Another one to two million people, known as the White émigrés, fled Russia, many with General Wrangel, some through the Far East and others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. The émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population of Russia.

The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The industrial production value descended to one seventh of the value of 1913 and agriculture to one third. According to ''Pravda'', "The workers of the towns and some of the villages choke in the throes of hunger. The railways barely crawl. The houses are crumbling. The towns are full of refuse. Epidemics spread and death strikes—industry is ruined."{{citation needed, date=September 2009 It is estimated that the total output of mines and factories in 1921 had fallen to 20% of the pre-World War level, and many crucial items experienced an even more drastic decline. For example, cotton production fell to 5%, and iron to 2%, of pre-war levels.

War Communism saved the Soviet government during the Civil War, but much of the Russian economy had ground to a standstill. Some peasants responded to Prodrazvyorstka, requisitions by refusing to till the land. By 1921 cultivated land had shrunk to 62% of the pre-war area, and the harvest yield was only about 37% of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920 and cattle from 58 to 37 million. The exchange rate with the US dollar declined from two Russian ruble, rubles in 1914 to 1,200 in 1920.

With the end of the war, the Communist Party no longer faced an acute military threat to its existence and power. However, the perceived threat of another intervention, combined with the failure of socialist revolutions in other countries—most notably the German Revolution—contributed to the continued militarisation of Soviet society. Although Russia experienced extremely rapid economic growth in the 1930s, the combined effect of World War I and the Civil War left a lasting scar on Russian society and had permanent effects on the development of the Soviet Union.

British historian Orlando Figes has contended that the root of the Whites' defeat was their inability to dispel the popular image that they were associated with Tsarist Russia and that they supported a Tsarist restoration as well.{{harvnb, Figes, 1997, p=681"At the root of the Whites' defeat was a failure of politics. They proved to be both unable and unwilling to frame policies capable of getting the mass of the population on their side. Their movement was based, in Wrangel's phrase, on "the cruel sword of vengeance"; their only idea was to put the clock back to the "happy days" before 1917; and they failed to see the need to adapt themselves to the realities of the revolution."

In fiction

Literature

* ''The Road to Calvary'' (1922–41) by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy
* ''Chapaev'' (1923) by Dmitri Furmanov
* ''The Iron Flood'' (1924) by Alexander Serafimovich
* ''Red Cavalry'' (1926) by Isaac Babel
* ''The Rout'' (1927) by Alexander Alexandrovich Fadeyev, Alexander Fadeyev
* ''Conquered City'' (1932) by Victor Serge
* ''Futility'' (1922) by William Gerhardie
* ''How the Steel Was Tempered'' (1934) by Nikolai Ostrovsky
* ''Optimistic Tragedy'' (1934) by Vsevolod Vishnevsky
* ''And Quiet Flows the Don'' (1928–1940) by Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov, Mikhail Sholokhov
* ''The Don Flows Home to the Sea'' (1940) by Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov, Mikhail Sholokhov
* ''Doctor Zhivago (novel), Doctor Zhivago'' (1957) by Boris Pasternak
* ''The White Guard'' (1966) by Mikhail Bulgakov
* ''Byzantium Endures'' (1981) by Michael Moorcock
* ''Chevengur'' (written in 1927, first published in 1988 in the USSR) by Andrei Platonov.
* ''Fall of Giants'' (2010) by Ken Follett
* ''A Splendid Little War'' (2012) by Derek Robinson (novelist)

Film

* ''Arsenal (1929 film), Arsenal'' (1928)
* ''Storm Over Asia (1928 film), Storm Over Asia'' (1928)
* ''Chapaev (film), Chapaev'' (1934)
* ''Thirteen'' (1936), directed by Mikhail Romm
* ''We Are from Kronstadt'' (1936), directed by Efim Dzigan, Yefim Dzigan
* ''Knight Without Armour'' (1937)
* ''The Year 1919'' (1938), directed by Ilya Trauberg
* ''The Baltic Marines'' (1939), directed by A. Faintsimmer
* ''Shchors (film), Shchors'' (1939), directed by Dovzhenko
* ''How the Steel Was Tempered, Pavel Korchagin'' (1956), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''The Forty-First (1956 film), The Forty-First'' (1956), directed by Grigori Chukhrai
* ''The Communist (film)'' (1957), directed by Yuli Raizman
* ''And Quiet Flows the Don (film), And Quiet Flows the Don'' (1958), directed by Sergei Gerasimov (film director), Sergei Gerasimov
* ''The Wind'' (1958), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''Doctor Zhivago (film), Doctor Zhivago'' (1965), directed by David Lean
* ''The Elusive Avengers'' (1966)
* ''The Red and the White (film), The Red and the White'' (1967)
* ''White Sun of the Desert'' (1970)
* ''The Flight (1970 film), The Flight'' (1970), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''Nicholas and Alexandra'' (1971) directed by Franklin Schaffner briefly mentioned
* ''Reds (film), Reds'' (1981), directed by Warren Beatty
* ''Corto Maltese, Corto Maltese in Siberia'' (2002)
* ''Nine Lives of Nestor Makhno'' (2005/2007)
* ''The Admiral (2008 film), Admiral'' (2008)
* ''Sunstroke (2014 film), Sunstroke'' (2014), directed by Nikita Mikhalkov

Video games

* ''Battlefield 1, Battlefield 1 In the Name of the Tsar'' (2017)

See also

{{Portal, Soviet Union
* Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
* Index of articles related to the Russian Revolution and Civil War
* Nikolayevsk incident
* Revolutionary Mass Festivals
* Timeline of the Russian Civil War

Notes

{{notelist

References

Citations

{{Reflist

Bibliography

{{See also, Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
{{refbegin
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* {{cite book, url=https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr, url-access=registration, pag
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* {{cite book, last1=Coates, first1=W. P., last2=Coates, first2=Zelda K., author-link = W. P. Coates, author-link2 = Zelda Kahan , title=Soviets in Central Asia, location=New York, publisher=Philosophical Library, year=1951, oclc= 1533874, url=https://archive.org/details/SovietsInCentralAsiaCoates
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* {{citation , first1=Alfonsas , last1=Eidintas , first2=Vytautas , last2=Žalys , first3=Alfred Erich , last3=Senn , title=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940 , edition=Paperback , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_i8yez8udgC&pg=PA33 , year=1999 , publisher=St. Martin's Press , location=New York , isbn=0-312-22458-3
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* {{cite book, last1= Haupt, first1= Georges, last2= Marie, first2= Jean-Jacques, name-list-style= amp, title= Makers of the Russian revolution, publisher= George Allen & Unwin, place= London, year= 1974, isbn= 978-0801408090, url-access= registration, url= https://archive.org/details/makersofrussianr0000haup
* {{cite book, first=Peter, last=Holquist, title=Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921, location=Cambridge, publisher=Harvard University Press, year=2002, isbn=0-674-00907-X
* {{Cite book, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vREGB60UPWMC, title=Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920: The Defeat of the Whites, last=Kenez, first=Peter, publisher=University of California Press, year=1977, isbn=978-0520033467, location=Berkeley, author-link=Peter Kenez
* {{cite book, last=Kinvig, first=Clifford, title=Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918–1920, publisher=Hambledon Continuum, year=2006, isbn=978-1847250216, location=London
* {{cite book, first=G. F. , last=Krivosheev, title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century, url={{google books , plainurl=y , id=CTTfAAAAMAAJ, year=1997, location=London, publisher=Greenhill Books, isbn=978-1-85367-280-4
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* {{cite book, first=Teresa, last=Rakowska-Harmstone, author-link=Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, title=Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia: The Case of Tadzhikistan, url=https://archive.org/details/russianationalis0000rako, url-access=registration, location=Baltimore, publisher=Johns Hopkins Press, year=1970, isbn=978-0801810213
* {{cite book, last=Read, first=Christopher, title=From Tsar to Soviets, location=Oxford, publisher=Oxford University Press, year=1996, isbn=978-0195212419
* {{cite book, last=Rosenthal, first=Reigo, title=Loodearmee, language=et , trans-title=Northwestern Army, year=2006, publisher=Argo, location=Tallinn, isbn=9949-415-45-4
* {{cite book, last=Ryan, first=James, year=2012, url=https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681, title=Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence, location=London, publisher=Routledge, isbn=978-1-138-81568-1
* {{cite book, first=George, last=Stewart, title=The White Armies of Russia A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention, year=2009, isbn= 978-1847349767
* {{Cite encyclopedia, title=Faustschlag, Operation, encyclopedia=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection, publisher=ABC-CLIO, location=Santa Barbara, CA, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ, last1=Smith, first1=David A., date=2014, pages=554–555, isbn=978-1851099658, first2=Spencer C., last2=Tucker
* {{cite book, first=John M., last=Thompson, title=A Vision Unfulfilled. Russia and the Soviet Union in the Twentieth Century, url=https://archive.org/details/visionunfulfille00thom, url-access=registration, location=Lexington, MA, year=1996, isbn= 978-0669282917
* {{cite book, first=Dmitri, last=Volkogonov, title=Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary, others=Translated and edited by Harold Shukman, location=London, publisher=HarperCollins Publishers, year=1996, isbn= 978-0002552721
* {{cite book, first=Geoffrey, last=Wheeler, title=The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia, location=New York, publisher=Frederick A. Praeger, year=1964, oclc=865924756
{{refend

Further reading

{{refbegin
* Acton, Edward, V. et al. eds. ''Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914–1921'' (Indiana UP, 1997).
* Brovkin, Vladimir N. . ''Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War: Political Parties and Social Movements in Russia, 1918–1922.'' (Princeton UP, 1994)
excerpt
* Dupuy, T.N. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History'' (many editions) Harper & Row Publishers.
* Ford, Chris. "Reconsidering the Ukrainian Revolution 1917–1921: The Dialectics of National Liberation and Social Emancipation." ''Debatte'' 15.3 (2007): 279–306.
* Peter Kenez. ''Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army'' (U of California Press, 1971).
* Lincoln, W. Bruce. '' Red victory: A history of the Russian Civil War'' (1989).
* Luckett, Richard. ''The White Generals: An Account of the White Movement and the Russian Civil War'' (Routledge, 2017).
* Marples, David R. ''Lenin's Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Moffat, Ian, ed. ''The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos'' (2015)
* Polyakov, Yuri.
The Civil War in Russia: Its Causes and Significance
' (Novosti, 1981).
* Serge, Victor. ''Year One of the Russian Revolution'' (Haymarket, 2015).
* Smele, Jonathan D. "‘If Grandma had Whiskers...': Could the Anti-Bolsheviks have won the Russian Revolutions and Civil Wars? Or, the Constraints and Conceits of Counterfactual History." ''Revolutionary Russia'' (2020): 1–32
‘If Grandma had Whiskers … ’: Could the Anti-Bolsheviks have won the Russian Revolutions and Civil Wars? Or, the Constraints and Conceits of Counterfactual History
* Smele, Jonathan. ''The 'Russian' Civil Wars, 1916–1926: Ten Years That Shook the World'' (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Smele, Jonathan D. ''Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926'' (2 Vol. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).
* Stewart, George. ''The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention'' (2008
excerpt
* Stone, David R. "The Russian Civil War, 1917–1921," in ''The Military History of the Soviet Union''.
* Swain, Geoffrey. ''The Origins of the Russian Civil War'' (2015
excerpt
** Smele, Jonathan D. "Still Searching for the ‘Third Way’: Geoffrey Swain's Interventions in the Russian Civil Wars." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 68.10 (2016): 1793–1812.

Primary sources

* Butt, V. P., et al., eds. ''The Russian civil war: documents from the Soviet archives'' (Springer, 2016).
* McCauley, Martin, ed. ''The Russian Revolution and the Soviet State 1917–1921: Documents'' (Springer, 1980).
* Murphy, A. Brian, ed. ''The Russian Civil War: Primary Sources'' (Springer, 2000
online review
{{refend

External links

{{Library resources box{{Commons category, Civil war of Russia
Newsreels about Russian Civil War // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive
*Sumpf, Alexandre
Russian Civil War
in


* Mawdsley, Evan
International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)
in


* Read, Christopher
Revolutions (Russian Empire)
in


* Peeling, Siobhan
War Communism
in


* Beyrau, Dietrich
Post-war Societies (Russian Empire)
in


* Brudek, Pawe³
Revolutions (East Central Europe)
in


* Melancon, Michael S.
Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)
in


* [http://libcom.org/library/russian-revolution Russian Revolution and Civil War archive at libcom.org/library]

"BBC History of the Russian Revolution"
(3 February 2007)


(Spartacus History, downloaded 3 January 2006)


(On War website, downloaded 4 January 2006)

"Civil War of 1917–1922 at Encyclopedia of Russian History
(3 February 2007)

{{World War I
{{Russian Civil War , collapsed
{{Russian Revolution 1917
{{Russian Conflicts
{{Soviet Union topics
{{Authority control

Russian Civil War,
1910s in Russia
1920s in Russia
1920s in the Soviet Union
Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Europe
Civil wars of the Industrial era
Revolution-based civil wars
Russian Revolution, Civil War
Wars involving Chechnya
Wars involving Russia
Wars involving the Soviet Union
1910s conflicts
1920s conflicts
Communism-based civil wars
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