Roman tribe
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

A ''tribus'', or tribe, was a division of the
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
people, constituting the voting units of a legislative assembly of the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
.''Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities'', "Tribus."''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', "Tribus." The word is probably derived from ''tribuere'', to divide or distribute; the traditional derivation from ''tres'', three, is doubtful. According to tradition, the first three tribes were established by Romulus; each was divided into ten ''curiae'', or wards, which were the voting units of the ''
comitia curiata The Curiate Assembly (''comitia curiata'') was the principal assembly that evolved in shape and form over the course of the Roman Kingdom until the Comitia Centuriata organized by Servius Tullius. During these first decades, the people of Rome w ...
''. Although the curiae continued throughout Roman history, the three original tribes that they constituted gradually vanished from history. Perhaps influenced by the original division of the people into tribes, as well as the number of thirty wards,
Servius Tullius Servius Tullius was the legendary sixth king of Rome, and the second of its Etruscan dynasty. He reigned from 578 to 535 BC. Roman and Greek sources describe his servile origins and later marriage to a daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, ...
established thirty new tribes, which later constituted the ''comitia tributa''. This number was reduced to twenty at the beginning of the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
; but as the Roman population and its territory grew, fifteen additional tribes were enrolled, the last in 241 BC. All
Roman citizens Citizenship in ancient Rome (Latin: ''civitas'') was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in Ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, t ...
were enrolled in one of these tribes, through which they were entitled to vote on the election of certain magistrates, religious officials, judicial decisions in certain suits affecting the plebs, and pass resolutions on various proposals made by the
tribunes of the plebs Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune ( la, tribunus plebis) was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power o ...
and the higher magistrates. Although the ''comitia tributa'' lost most of its legislative functions under the
Empire An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
, enrollment in a tribe remained an important part of Roman citizenship until at least the third century AD.'' Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities'', Second Edition,
Harry Thurston Peck Harry Thurston Peck (November 24, 1856 – March 23, 1914) was an American classical scholar, author, editor, historian and critic. Biography Peck was born in Stamford, Connecticut. He was educated in private schools and at Columbia College, g ...
, Editor (1897), "Comitia".


The Romulean tribes

The first three tribes are said to have been established by Romulus, the founder and first King of Rome, shortly after the foundation of the city. Following the
Rape of the Sabine Women The Rape of the Sabine Women ( ), also known as the Abduction of the Sabine Women or the Kidnapping of the Sabine Women, was an incident in Roman mythology in which the men of Rome committed a mass abduction of young women from the other cit ...
, the Sabines under
Titus Tatius According to the Roman foundation myth, Titus Tatius was the king of the Sabines from Cures and joint-ruler of the Kingdom of Rome for several years. During the reign of Romulus, the first king of Rome, Tatius declared war on Rome in resp ...
attacked Rome, and successfully entered the city. After fierce fighting, the Sabine women themselves interceded, stepping between their husbands and their fathers to prevent further bloodshed. Peace was concluded, with Romulus and Tatius ruling jointly, and a large Sabine population relocating to Rome; the nascent city was thus evenly divided between Latins and Sabines. At this time (traditionally 750 BC), Romulus divided the people into three tribes, known as the ''Ramnes'' or ''Ramnenses'', named after himself; the ''Tities'' or ''Titienses'', named after Titus Tatius; and the ''Luceres'' or ''Lucerenses'', whose name and origin were obscure even to the ancient historians. Known as the three ''Romulean tribes'', these first tribes have often been supposed to represent the major ethnic groups of early Rome: the Ramnes representing Rome's Latin population; the Tities representing the Sabines; and the Luceres probably representing the
Etruscans The Etruscan civilization () was developed by a people of Etruria in ancient Italy with a common language and culture who formed a federation of city-states. After conquering adjacent lands, its territory covered, at its greatest extent, rou ...
. Rome lay on the
Tiber The Tiber ( ; it, Tevere ; la, Tiberis) is the third-longest List of rivers of Italy, river in Italy and the longest in Central Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing through Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio, where ...
, the traditional boundary of Etruria with
Latium Latium ( , ; ) is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire. Definition Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil ( Old Latium) on w ...
, and may have had a substantial Etruscan population from the beginning; but certainly there was a considerable Etruscan element in the Roman population by the sixth century BC; the fifth and seventh kings of Rome were Etruscan, and many of Rome's cultural institutions were of Etruscan origin. It may be to this period, rather than the time of Romulus, that the institution of the ''Luceres'' belongs; and indeed the names, if not the ethnic character, of all three of the Romulean tribes appear to be Etruscan.
Robert Maxwell Ogilvie Robert Maxwell Ogilvie FRSE FSA FBA DLitt (5 June 1932 – 7 November 1981) was a British scholar of Latin literature and Classical language, classical philology. Life His parents were Sir Frederick Wolff Ogilvie (1893–1949), director-general ...
, ''A Commentary on Livy, Books I–V'' (1965).
Although the theory that the Romulean tribes represented the city's original ethnic components continues to be represented in modern scholarship, it has never been universally accepted, and this view is rejected by many scholars.


The ''curiae''

These three tribes were in turn divided into thirty ''curiae'', or wards, the organization of which is unclear; they were said to have been named after thirty of the Sabine Women, but of the nine ''curiae'' whose names are known today, several are of geographical origin. The only ''curiae'' whose names are now known were: ''Acculeia, Calabra, Faucia, Foriensis, Rapta, Tifata'', ''Titia'', ''Veliensis'', and ''Velitia''.''Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities'', "Curia." In the past, it was widely believed that membership in the ''curiae'' was limited to the
patricians The patricians (from la, patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after ...
, and that statements to the contrary, indicating that clientes were admitted meant no more than that they were passive members with no voting rights. However, Mommsen argued convincingly that the
plebeians In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins of ...
were included in voting, and this view now appears to have prevailed; the plebeians were included either from the beginning, or at least from an early date; certainly from the earliest years of the Republic. The members of the ''curiae'' were known as ''curiales.'' Each ''curia'' was attended by a priest, or ''curio'', who assisted by another priest, known as the ''flamen curialis'', undertook the religious obligations of the ward. Each had its own place of meeting, also known as a ''
curia Curia (Latin plural curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers, they came ...
.''


The ''comitia curiata''

When the various ''curiae'' were assembled for voting, they formed the ''
comitia curiata The Curiate Assembly (''comitia curiata'') was the principal assembly that evolved in shape and form over the course of the Roman Kingdom until the Comitia Centuriata organized by Servius Tullius. During these first decades, the people of Rome w ...
'', the oldest legislative assembly of the Roman Republic. One of the ''curiones'' was appointed or elected ''curio maximus'', and presided over the assembly. Under the kings, the ''comitia curiata'' was summoned by the king or by an
interrex The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin ''inter reges'') during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic. He was in effect a short-term regent. History The office of ''interrex'' was supposedly created follow ...
, who would present questions upon which the ''comitia'' might vote. These included the election of a new king, as proposed by the interrex; the passing of a law conferring
imperium In ancient Rome, ''imperium'' was a form of authority held by a citizen to control a military or governmental entity. It is distinct from '' auctoritas'' and '' potestas'', different and generally inferior types of power in the Roman Republic a ...
on the king, known as a ''lex curiata de imperio''; whether to declare war; rulings on appeals; matters relating to ''arrogatio''; and whether to allow foreigners to be received among the patricians. Under
Servius Tullius Servius Tullius was the legendary sixth king of Rome, and the second of its Etruscan dynasty. He reigned from 578 to 535 BC. Roman and Greek sources describe his servile origins and later marriage to a daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, ...
, the rights to declare war and to decide appeals were transferred to the ''
comitia centuriata The Centuriate Assembly (Latin: ''comitia centuriata'') of the Roman Republic was one of the three voting assemblies in the Roman constitution. It was named the Centuriate Assembly as it originally divided Roman citizens into groups of one hundred ...
'', another legislative assembly. After the downfall of the Roman monarchy, questions were presented to the ''comitia curiata'' by the
Roman Senate The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
. However, between 494 and 449 BC, most of its functions were relegated to the ''comitia tributa'' and the ''comitia centuriata.'' The higher magistrates were elected by the ''comitia centuriata'', which also presided over certain capital trials, and held the power to declare war, and to pass legislation presented by the senate. Lesser magistrates were elected by the ''comitia tributa'', which also elected religious officials, presided over trials affecting the plebeians, and passed resolutions based on legislation proposed by the tribunes of the plebs and various magistrates. The ''comitia curiata'' retained the power to confer imperium on magistrates elected by the ''comitia centuriata'', and to confirm alterations in the
Roman constitution The Roman Constitution was an uncodified set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent.Byrd, 161 The Roman constitution was not formal or even official, largely unwritten and constantly evolving. Having those characteristic ...
decided upon by the other two comitia; both of these, however, required the senate to propose them before the ''comitia'' could act. The ''comitia'' also retained the power to decide whether to admit a non-patrician into that order, and to oversee the process of ''arrogatio,'' particularly when a patrician was being adopted into a plebeian family. By the late republic, each ''curia'' was represented by only one
lictor A lictor (possibly from la, ligare, "to bind") was a Roman civil servant who was an attendant and bodyguard to a magistrate who held ''imperium''. Lictors are documented since the Roman Kingdom, and may have originated with the Etruscans. Origi ...
.


The Servian tribes

The institution of the tribes that made up the ''comitia tributa'', as well as the centuries of the ''comitia centuriata'', occurred under Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, whose reign is traditionally dated from 578 to 534 BC. According to Livy, Servius divided the city into four regions, called tribes. The surrounding land seems to have been divided originally into twenty-six ''pagi'', out of which the earliest rural tribes were later formed, perhaps by Servius himself. The names of the four "urban" tribes were based on the four regions of the city that they represented, while those of the "rural" tribes were likely based on the names of families that owned considerable tracts of land in those areas. The four urban tribes were the Collina, Esquilina, Palatina, and Suburana (also called Succusana); and the original sixteen rural tribes: Aemilia, Camilia, Cornelia, Fabia, Galeria, Horatia, Lemonia, Menenia, Papiria, Pollia, Popillia, Pupinia, Romilia, Sergia, Veturia, and Voltinia.


Later tribes

The dates of the creation of the remaining tribes are all known. When the Sabine Appius Claudius removed to Rome together with his ''clientes'', in 504 BC, he was admitted to the patriciate, and assigned lands in the region around the mouth of the
Anio The Aniene (; la, Aniō), formerly known as the Teverone, is a river in Lazio, Italy. It originates in the Apennines at Trevi nel Lazio and flows westward past Subiaco, Vicovaro, and Tivoli to join the Tiber in northern Rome. It formed the pr ...
. These settlers became the basis of the ''tribus Claudia'', which was admitted in 495 BC, during Claudius' consulship, and subsequently enlarged to become the ''tribus Crustumina'' or ''Clustumina''. Four more tribes were added in 387 BC: Arniensis, Sabatina, Stellatina, and Tromentina. With the addition of
Volsci The Volsci (, , ) were an Italic tribe, well known in the history of the first century of the Roman Republic. At the time they inhabited the partly hilly, partly marshy district of the south of Latium, bounded by the Aurunci and Samnites on the ...
an territory in 358 BC, two more tribes were formed, Pomptina and Publilia (also found as Poblilia). In 332, the censors
Quintus Publilius Philo Quintus Publilius Philo was a Roman politician who lived during the 4th century BC. His birth date is not provided by extant sources, however, a reasonable estimate is about 365 BC, since he first became consul in 339 BC at a time when consuls co ...
and Spurius Postumius Albinus enrolled two more tribes, Maecia (originally Maicia) and Scaptia. Ufentina (or Oufentina) and Falerina followed in 318, and in 299 Aniensis and Terentina were added. The last two tribes, Quirina and Velina, were established in 241 BC, bringing the number of tribes to thirty-five. Eight tribes were added at the end of the Social War, when the Roman franchise was extended to the
socii The ''socii'' ( in English) or '' foederati'' ( in English) were confederates of Rome and formed one of the three legal denominations in Roman Italy (''Italia'') along with the Roman citizens (''Cives'') and the '' Latini''. The ''Latini'', who ...
, but they were later absorbed into the other thirty-five. The thirty-five tribes (with their usual abbreviations) were: The four urban tribes * Collina () * Esquilina () * Palatina () * Suburana () The rural tribes * Aemilia () * Aniensis () * Arniensis () * Camilia () * Claudia () * Crustumina () * Cornelia () * Fabia () * Falerina () * Galeria () * Horatia () * Lemonia () * Maecia () * Menenia () * Papiria () * Pollia () * Pomptina () * Publilia () * Pupinia () * Quirina () * Romilia () * Sabatina () * Scaptia () * Sergia () * Stellatina () * Terentina () * Tromentina () * Ufentina () * Velina () * Veturia () * Voltinia () Although the names of the older rural tribes are those of patrician families, the tribes themselves were probably entirely plebeian until 449 BC, after which both patricians and plebeians were enrolled; before this time, many of the powers and responsibilities later held by the ''comitia tributa'' still belonged to the ''comitia curiata.'' While we know the origin of their names, the location of the territories which defined these tribes is uncertain. Subsequent tribes were based in territories where Roman settlements had been established, or in which the inhabitants had received the Roman franchise. In later periods, citizens might be enrolled in tribes without reference to geography. The enrollment of new citizens in particular tribes became a significant political issue during the
censorship Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...
of
Appius Claudius Caecus Appius Claudius Caecus ( 312–279 BC) was a statesman and writer from the Roman Republic. The first Roman public figure whose life can be traced with some historical certainty, Caecus was responsible for the building of Rome's first road (t ...
in 312 BC. Those who wished to limit the voting power of the lower social orders, and particularly of freedmen, advocated enrolling them only in the four urban tribes. This effort was largely unsuccessful, except with respect to freedmen, who were nearly always enrolled in one of the urban tribes. A similar attempt to limit the power of newly enfranchised citizens followed the end of the Social War. It was also possible for one of the censors to punish an individual by expelling him from one of the rustic tribes, and assigning him to one of the urban tribes; this was known as ''tribu movere''. The tribes functioned as civil divisions of the populace for purposes of the census, taxation, and military service. Each tribe possessed its own officers, including a ''curator tribuum'', who served as the head of the tribe, and ''tribuni aerarii'', or tribunes of the treasury, whose responsibility was for the tribe's financial obligations; they were responsible for collecting the war tax, and distributed pay to the tribe's soldiers. Toward the end of the Republic, the importance of the tribus was such that it became an official part of a Roman's name, usually appearing, in the most formal documents and inscriptions, between a citizen's filiation and any cognomina. In imperial times, the enrollment of citizens in tribes along a geographic basis was resumed; for instance, easterners were typically enrolled in the tribes Collina and Quirina, while in Gallia Narbonensis enrollment in the ''tribus Voltinia'' was preferred.


The ''comitia tributa''

Together, the Servian tribes constituted the ''concilium plebis'', or plebeian council; as time passed and the council's authority to pass legislation developed, it was increasingly known as the ''comitia plebis tributa'', or tribal assembly.''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', "Comitia." A law passed in 449 BC made resolutions of the ''comitia tributa'', known as ''plebi scita'', or plebiscites, binding upon the whole Roman people; this law was not ratified by the senate until 286 BC, but even before this its resolutions were considered binding on the plebs. Because all citizens, whether patrician or plebeian, received the same vote in the ''comitia tributa'', and because the assembly was much simpler to convene than the ''comitia centuriata'', the ''comitia tributa'' was Rome's most democratic assembly. By the end of the Republic, the plebs greatly outnumbered the patricians, and it was through this ''comitia'' that the collective will of the citizens could be exercised without regard to wealth or status.


Powers

The ''comitia tributa'' elected all of the lower magistrates, including the
tribunes of the plebs Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune ( la, tribunus plebis) was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power o ...
, the
military tribune A military tribune (Latin ''tribunus militum'', "tribune of the soldiers") was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping stone ...
s, the
plebeian aediles In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins of ...
and the
curule aediles ''Aedile'' ( ; la, aedīlis , from , "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enf ...
. A committee of seventeen tribes, chosen by lot, nominated the Pontifex Maximus, and coöpted members of the ''collegia'' of the
pontifices A pontiff (from Latin ''pontifex'') was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the most illustrious of the colleges of priests of the Roman religion, the College of Pontiffs."Pontifex". "Oxford English Dictionary", March 2007 The term "pontiff" was lat ...
, augures, and the decemviri sacrorum. The ''comitia'' could pass resolutions proposed by the tribunes of the plebs, or by the higher magistrates, on both domestic and foreign matters, such as the making of treaties or concluding of peace. Proposals had to be published before receiving a vote, and were passed or rejected as a whole, without modification. Although the senate might review these resolutions, it could only reject them if they had been passed without the proper formalities. The ''comitia tributa'' also decided suits instituted by the plebeian tribunes and aediles, for offenses against the plebs or their representatives. In the later Republic, these suits typically involved charges of maladministration; the tribunes and aediles were entitled to levy substantial fines.


Procedures

Beginning with the institution of the tribunes of the plebs in 494 BC, the ''comitia tributa'' was normally summoned by the tribunes themselves. Magistrates could also convene the ''comitia'', but only with the consent of the tribunes. The ''comitia'' was summoned by the proclamation of a ''praeco'', a crier or herald, at least seventeen days before the meeting. The
auspices Augury is the practice from ancient Roman religion of interpreting omens from the observed behavior of birds. When the individual, known as the augur, interpreted these signs, it is referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" (Latin '' ...
would be taken, and the meeting could only proceed if they were favourable. The tribes convened at daybreak, and were obliged to adjourn at sunset. If summoned by one of the tribunes, the tribes had to gather within the city, or within a one-mile radius of the city; this was the boundary of a tribune's authority. In the first centuries of the Republic, the ''comitia'' usually met on the
Capitol A capitol, named after the Capitoline Hill in Rome, is usually a legislative building where a legislature meets and makes laws for its respective political entity. Specific capitols include: * United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. * Numerous ...
, in the Forum, or at the
Comitium The Comitium ( it, Comizio) was the original open-air public meeting space of Ancient Rome, and had major religious and prophetic significance. The name comes from the Latin word for "assembly". The Comitium location at the northwest corner of th ...
. If summoned by one of the magistrates, the comitia typically met on the
Campus Martius The Campus Martius (Latin for the "Field of Mars", Italian ''Campo Marzio'') was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome. The IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which cove ...
. After a prayer, unaccompanied by sacrifice, proposals would be read, and the citizens arranged by tribe. The first tribe to vote, known as the ''principium'', was chosen by lot, and the result of its vote announced. The other tribes would then vote simultaneously, and the results of their votes announced in an order also determined by lot, before the final result was proclaimed. Laws passed by the ''comitia'' took effect as soon as the results were announced. Although the order of voting was determined by lot, there was also an official order of the tribes, known as the ''ordo tribuum''. The first four tribes were the urban tribes, in the order: Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina; the rural tribes followed, concluding with Aniensis.


Decline

In the final years of the Republic, participation in the ''comitia'' was quite low, and its acts increasingly the result of corruption.
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
deprived the ''comitia tributa'' of the power to declare war or conclude peace; the early
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
s further curtailed its power.
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
removed the ''comitia's'' judicial function, and preserved its power to pass legislation only in form. He filled half of the available magistracies with his own candidates, and
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
transferred the comitia's remaining electoral authority to the senate. Although the emperors received many of their powers from the ''comitia tributa'', this was only a formality. Although the ''comitia tributa'' continued to exist until the third century AD, its only remaining functions were symbolic; it took auspices and gave prayer; it conferred the emperor's legislative powers and other authority; and it proclaimed the laws presented to it for approval. But by this time voting was done not by ballot, but by '' acclamatio''.


See also

* List of Roman tribes


Notes


References


Bibliography

; Primary sources *
Marcus Terentius Varro Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes calle ...
, ''De Lingua Latina'' (On the Latin Language). * Titus Livius (
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...
), ''
History of Rome The history of Rome includes the history of the city of Rome as well as the civilisation of ancient Rome. Roman history has been influential on the modern world, especially in the history of the Catholic Church, and Roman law has influenced m ...
''. *
Sextus Pompeius Festus Sextus Pompeius Festus, usually known simply as Festus, was a Roman grammarian who probably flourished in the later 2nd century AD, perhaps at Narbo (Narbonne) in Gaul. Work He made a 20-volume epitome of Verrius Flaccus's voluminous and encyclop ...
, ''Epitome de M. Verrio Flacco de Verborum Significatu'' (Epitome of
Marcus Verrius Flaccus Marcus Verrius Flaccus (c. 55 BCAD 20) was a Roman grammarian and teacher who flourished under Augustus and Tiberius. Life He was a freedman, and his manumitter has been identified with Verrius Flaccus, an authority on pontifical law; but for c ...
: On the Meaning of Words). ; Secondary sources * Timothy Cornell, ''The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars'', Routledge, London (1995). * Michael H. Crawford, "Tribus, Tesserae, et Regions," in ''Comptes rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres'', vol. 146, pp. 1125–1135 (2002). * ''
Oxford Classical Dictionary The ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'' (''OCD'') is generally considered "the best one-volume dictionary on antiquity," an encyclopædic work in English consisting of articles relating to classical antiquity and its civilizations. It was first pub ...
'', N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, eds., Clarendon Press, Oxford (Second Edition, 1970). * Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen, ''Römische Forschungen'' (Roman Research), Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, Berlin (1864–1879). * '' Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities'',
Harry Thurston Peck Harry Thurston Peck (November 24, 1856 – March 23, 1914) was an American classical scholar, author, editor, historian and critic. Biography Peck was born in Stamford, Connecticut. He was educated in private schools and at Columbia College, g ...
, ed. (Second Edition, 1897). * D.P. Simpson, ''Cassell's Latin and English Dictionary'', Macmillan Publishing Company, New York (1963). * C.J. Smith, ''The Roman Clan: The Gens from Ancient Ideology to Modern Anthropology'' (2006). * John C. Traupman, ''The New College Latin & English Dictionary'', Bantam Books, New York (1995). {{Authority control * Government of the Roman Republic Roman law Historical legislatures