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Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part in Roman religious life during both the Republican and Imperial eras, and one of the primary features of the
Roman calendar The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. The term often includes the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the dictator Julius Caesar and emperor Augustus in the late 1stcenturyBC and some ...
. ''Feriae'' ("holidays" in the sense of "holy days"; singular also ''feriae'' or ''dies ferialis'') were either public ''(publicae)'' or private ''( privatae)''. State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games ''(
ludi ''Ludi'' ( Latin plural) were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of, Roman religious festivals, and were also ...
)'', such as the Ludi Apollinares, were not technically ''feriae'', but the days on which they were celebrated were '' dies festi'', holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Although ''feriae'' were paid for by the state, ''ludi'' were often funded by wealthy individuals. ''Feriae privatae'' were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families. This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome. ''Feriae publicae'' were of three kinds: * ''Stativae'' were annual holidays that held a fixed or stable date on the calendar. * ''Conceptivae'' were annual holidays that were moveable feasts (like Easter on the Christian calendar, or Thanksgiving in North America); the date was announced by the
magistrates The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judic ...
or priests who were responsible for them. * '' Imperativae'' were holidays held "on demand" (from the verb ''impero, imperare'', "to order, command") when special celebrations or expiations were called for. One of the most important sources for Roman holidays is
Ovid Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom ...
's '' Fasti'', an incomplete poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time of
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
.


Keeping the ''feriae''

Varro defined ''feriae'' as "days instituted for the sake of the gods." Religious rites were performed on the ''feriae'', and public business was suspended. Even slaves were supposed to be given some form of rest. Cicero says specifically that people who were free should not engage in lawsuits and quarrels, and slaves should get a break from their labours.
Agricultural writers Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people ...
recognized that some jobs on a farm might still need to be performed, and specified what these were. Some agricultural tasks not otherwise permitted could be carried out if an expiation were made in advance ''( piaculum)'', usually the sacrifice of a puppy. Within the city of Rome, the flamens and the priest known as the '' Rex sacrorum'' were not allowed even to see work done. On a practical level, those who "inadvertently" worked could pay a fine or offer up a ''piaculum'', usually a pig. Work considered vital either to the gods or preserving human life was excusable, according to some experts on religious law. Although Romans were required not to work, they were not required to take any religious action unless they were priests or had family rites ''( sacra gentilicia)'' to maintain.


List of festivals by month

Following is a month-by-month list of Roman festivals and games that had a fixed place on the calendar. For some, the date on which they were first established is recorded. A deity's festival often marked the anniversary ('' dies natalis,'' "birthday") of the founding of a temple, or a rededication after a major renovation. Festivals not named for deities are thought to be among the oldest on the calendar. Some religious observances were monthly. The first day of the month was the Kalends (or Calends, from which the English word "calendar" derives). Each Kalends was sacred to Juno, and the '' Regina sacrorum'' ("Queen of the Rites," a public priestess) marked the day by presiding over a sacrifice to the goddess. Originally a pontiff and the '' Rex sacrorum'' reported the sighting of the new moon, and the pontiff announced whether the Nones occurred on the 5th or 7th of that month. On the Nones, announcements were made regarding events to take place that month; with the exception of the Poplifugia, no major festivals were held before the Nones, though other ceremonies, such as anniversaries of temple dedications, might be carried out. The Ides (usually the 13th, or in a few months the 15th) were sacred to
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousand ...
. On each Ides, a white lamb was led along the Via Sacra to the Capitolium for sacrifice to Jupiter. The list also includes other notable public religious events such as sacrifices and processions that were observed annually but are neither ''feriae'' nor ''dies natales.'' Unless otherwise noted, the calendar is that of
H.H. Scullard Howard Hayes Scullard (9 February 1903 – 31 March 1983) was a British historian specialising in ancient history, notable for editing the ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'' and for his many published works. Scullard's father was Herbert Hayes S ...
, ''Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic''.


Ianuarius

*1 (
Calends The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word "calendar" is derived from this word. Use The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a ...
): From 153 BC onward,
consuls A consul is an official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, as well as to facilitate trade and friendship between the people ...
entered office on this date, accompanied by '' vota publica'' (public vows for the wellbeing of the republic and later of the emperor) and the taking of
auspices Augury is the practice from ancient Roman religion of interpreting omens from the observed behavior of birds. When the individual, known as the augur, interpreted these signs, it is referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" ( Latin ''aus ...
. Festivals were also held for the imported cult of Aesculapius and for the obscure god Vediovis. * 3-5: most common dates for
Compitalia In ancient Roman religion, the Compitalia ( la, Ludi Compitalicii; ) was an annual festival in honor of the Lares Compitales, household deities of the crossroads, to whom sacrifices were offered at the places where two or more ways met. This fe ...
, a movable feast ''( feriae conceptivae)'' * 5 (Nones): ''Dies natalis'' (founding day) of the shrine of
Vica Pota In ancient Roman religion, Vica Pota was a goddess whose shrine ''(aedes)'' was located at the foot of the Velian Hill, on the site of the ''domus'' of Publius Valerius Publicola. This location would place the temple on the same side of the Velia as ...
on the Velian Hill *9: Agonalia in honor of Janus, after whom the month January is named; first of at least four festivals named Agonalia throughout the year *11 and 15:
Carmentalia Carmentalia was the two feast days (11 January and 15 January) of the Roman goddess Carmenta In ancient Roman religion and myth, Carmenta was a goddess of childbirth and prophecy, associated with technological innovation as well as the prote ...
, with Juturna celebrated also on the 11th * 13 (Ides) * 24–26: most common dates for the Sementivae, a ''feriae conceptivae'' of sowing, perhaps also known as the Paganalia as celebrated by the '' pagi'' * 27: ''Dies natalis'' of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, or perhaps marking its rededication (see also July 15); ''Ludi Castores'' ("Games of the Castors") celebrated at Ostia during the Imperial period


Februarius

In the archaic Roman calendar, February was the last month of the year. The name derives from ''februa'', "the means of purification, expiatory offerings." It marked a turn of season, with February 5 the official first day of spring bringing the renewal of agricultural activities after winter. * 1 (Kalends): ''Dies natalis'' for the Temple of Juno Sospita, Mother and Queen; ''sacra'' at the Grove of Alernus, near the
Tiber The Tiber ( ; it, Tevere ; la, Tiberis) is the third-longest river in Italy and the longest in Central Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing through Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio, where it is joined by th ...
at the foot of the Palatine Hill * 5: ''Dies natalis'' for the Temple of Concordia on the Capitoline Hill * 13 (Ides): minor festival of Faunus on the Tiber Island * 13–22: Parentalia, a commemoration of ancestors and the dead among families ** 13: Parentatio, with appeasement of the
Manes In ancient Roman religion, the ''Manes'' (, , ) or ''Di Manes'' are chthonic deities sometimes thought to represent souls of deceased loved ones. They were associated with the '' Lares'', '' Lemures,'' '' Genii'', and ''Di Penates'' as deities ( ...
beginning at the 6th hour and ceremonies performed by the chief Vestal; temples were closed, no fires burned on altars, marriages were forbidden, magistrates took off their insignia, until the 21st * 15: Lupercalia * 17: last day of the ''feriae conceptivae''
Fornacalia The Fornacalia was an Ancient Roman religious festival celebrated in honor of the goddess ''Fornax'', a divine personification of the oven (''fornax''), and was related to the proper baking of bread. History The Fornacalia may have been establishe ...
, the Oven Festival; Quirinalia, in honour of Quirinus *21: Feralia, the only public observation of the Parentalia, marked F ''(dies festus)'' in some calendars and FP (a designation of uncertain meaning) in others, with dark rites aimed at the gods below ''(
di inferi The ''di inferi'' or ''dii inferi'' (Latin, "the gods below") were a shadowy collective of ancient Roman deities associated with death and the underworld. The epithet ''inferi'' is also given to the mysterious Manes, a collective of ancestral spi ...
)'' * 22: Caristia (or Cara Cognatio, "Dear Kindred"), a potluck meal provided by all the family, and shared in a spirit of love and forgiveness * 23: Terminalia, in honour of Terminus * 24: Regifugium *27: Equirria, first of two horse-racing festivals to Mars


Martius

In the old Roman calendar (until perhaps as late as 153 BC), the ''mensis Martius'' ("Mars' Month") was the first month of the year. It is one of the few months to be named for a god, Mars, whose festivals dominate the month. *1 (Kalends): the original New Year's Day when the sacred fire of Rome was renewed; the dancing armed priesthood of the Salii celebrated the ''Feriae Marti'' (holiday for Mars), which was also the ''dies natalis'' ("birthday") of Mars; also the Matronalia, in honor of
Juno Lucina Juno ( ; Latin ) was an ancient Roman goddess, the protector and special counsellor of the state. She was equated to Hera, queen of the gods in Greek mythology. A daughter of Saturn, she was the sister and wife of Jupiter and the mother of Ma ...
, Mars' mother * 7: a second festival for Vediovis * 9: a ''
dies religiosus The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on ...
'' when the Salii carried the sacred shields ''(
ancilia In ancient Rome, the ''ancilia'' (Latin, singular ''ancile'') were twelve sacred shields kept in the Temple of Mars. According to legend, one divine shield fell from heaven during the reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. He ordered e ...
)'' around the city again *14: the second Equirria, a ''Feriae Marti'' also called the Mamuralia or ''sacrum Mamurio'' * 15 (Ides): ''Feriae Iovi'', sacred to Jove, and also the feast of the year goddess Anna Perenna * 16–17: the procession of the Argei * 17: Liberalia, in honour of
Liber In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion and Roman mythology, mythology, Liber ( , ; "the free one"), also known as Liber Pater ("the free Father"), was a god of viticulture and wine, male fertility and freedom. He was a patron de ...
; also an Agonalia for Mars * 19: Quinquatrus, later expanded into a five-day holiday as Quinquatria, a ''Feriae Marti'', but also a feast day for
Minerva Minerva (; ett, Menrva) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of strategic war. From the second century BC onward, the R ...
, possibly because her temple on the Aventine Hill was dedicated on this day * 23: Tubilustrium, purification of the trumpets. * 24: a day marked QRFC, when the Comitia Calata met to sanction wills *31: anniversary of the Temple of Luna on the Aventine


Aprilis ''Aprilis'' or ''mensis Aprilis'' (April) was the second month of the ancient Roman calendar, following '' Martius'' ( March) and preceding '' Maius'' (May). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, ''Aprilis'' was the second of te ...

A major ''feriae conceptivae'' in April was the
Latin Festival The ''Feriae Latinae'' or Latin Festival was an ancient Roman religious festival held in April on the Alban Mount. The date varied, and was determined and announced by the consuls each year when they took office. It was one of the most ancient f ...
. * 1 (Kalends): Veneralia in honour of Venus *4–10: Ludi Megalenses or Megalesia, in honor of the Magna Mater or Cybele, whose temple was dedicated April 10, 191 BC * 5: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Publica *12–19:
Cerialia In ancient Roman religion, the Cerealia was the major festival celebrated for the grain goddess Ceres. It was held for seven days from mid- to late April. Various agricultural festivals were held in the "last half of April". The Cerealia celebrat ...
or Ludi Cereri, festival and games for Ceres, established by 202 BC * 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Victor *15:
Fordicidia In ancient Roman religion, the Fordicidia was a festival of fertility, held on the Ides of April (April 15), that pertained to farming and animal husbandry. It involved the sacrifice of a pregnant cow to Tellus, the ancient Roman goddess of the ...
, offering of a pregnant cow to Tellus ("Earth") *21:
Parilia upright=1.5, ''Festa di Pales, o L'estate'' (1783), a reimagining of the Festival of Pales by Joseph-Benoît Suvée The Parilia is an ancient Roman festival of rural character performed annually on 21 April, aimed at cleansing both sheep and sh ...
, rustic festival in honour of Pales, and the ''dies natalis'' of Rome *23: the first of two wine festivals ( Vinalia), the ''Vinalia Priora'' for the previous year's wine, held originally for Jupiter and later Venus *25: Robigalia, an agricultural festival involving dog sacrifice *27 (28 in the
Julian calendar The Julian calendar, proposed by Roman consul Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on , by edict. It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and astronomers such as Sosigenes of Alexandri ...
) to May 1: Ludi Florales in honour of Flora, extended to May 3 under the Empire


Maius

The ''feriae conceptivae'' of this month was the Ambarvalia. *1 (Kalends): Games of Flora continue; sacrifice to Maia; anniversary of the Temple of Bona Dea on the Aventine; rites for the Lares Praestites, tutelaries of the city of Rome * 3: in the Imperial period, a last celebration for Flora, or the anniversary of one of her temples *9, 11, 13:
Lemuria Lemuria (), or Limuria, was a continent proposed in 1864 by zoologist Philip Sclater, theorized to have sunk beneath the Indian Ocean, later appropriated by occultists in supposed accounts of human origins. The theory was discredited with the d ...
, a festival of the dead with both public and household rites, possibly with a sacrifice to Mania on the 11th * 14: anniversary of the Temple of Mars Invictus (Mars the Unconquered); a second procession of the Argei *15 (Ides):
Mercuralia Mercuralia is a Roman celebration known also as the "Festival of Mercury". Mercury (Greek counterpart: Hermes) was the god of merchants and commerce. On May 15 merchants would sprinkle their heads, their ships and merchandise, and their businesse ...
, in honor of Mercury; ''Feriae'' of Jove *21: one of four Agonalia, probably a third festival for Vediovis *23: a second Tubilustrium; ''Feriae'' for Volcanus (Vulcan) * 24: QRCF, following Tubilustrium as in March * 25: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia


Iunius The gens Junia was one of the most celebrated families of ancient Rome. The gens may originally have been patrician, and was already prominent in the last days of the Roman monarchy. Lucius Junius Brutus was the nephew of Lucius Tarquiniu ...

Scullard places the
Taurian Games The Taurian Games (Latin ''Ludi Taurii'' or ''Ludi Taurei'', rarely Taurilia) were games ''(ludi)'' held in ancient Rome in honor of the ''di inferi'', the gods of the underworld. They were not part of a regularly scheduled religious festival on t ...
on June 25–26, but other scholars doubt these ''ludi'' had a fixed date or recurred on a regular basis. * 1 (Kalends): anniversaries of the Temple of Juno Moneta; of the Temple of Mars on the ''clivus'' (slope, street) outside the Porta Capena; and possibly of the Temple of the Tempestates (storm goddesses); also a festival of the complex goddess Cardea or Carna *3: anniversary of the Temple of
Bellona Bellona may refer to: Places *Bellona, Campania, a ''comune'' in the Province of Caserta, Italy * Bellona Reef, a reef in New Caledonia *Bellona Island, an island in Rennell and Bellona Province, Solomon Islands Ships * HMS ''Bellona'' (1760), a 7 ...
* 4: anniversary of the restoration of the Temple of Hercules Custos * 5: anniversary of the Temple of Dius Fidius * 7:
Ludi Piscatorii The Ludi Piscatorii was a Roman holiday celebrated on 7 June in the 3rd century BC in honor of Father Tiber. The holiday was celebrated by the fishermen of Rome; the celebration was directed by the Praetor Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the titl ...
, "Fishermen's Games" *7–15: Vestalia, in honour of Vesta; June 9 was a ''dies religiosus'' to her * 8: anniversary of the Temple of Mens * 11: Matralia in honour of Mater Matuta; also the anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna in the Forum Boarium * 13 (Ides): ''Feriae'' of Jove * 13–15: ''Quinquatrus minusculae'', the lesser Quinquatrus celebrated by '' tibicines'', flute-players in their role as accompanists to religious ceremonies *19: a commemoration involving the Temple of Minerva on the Aventine, which had its anniversary March 19 *20: anniversary of the Temple of
Summanus Summanus ( lat, Summānus) was the god of nocturnal thunder in ancient Roman religion, as counterposed to Jupiter, the god of diurnal (daylight) thunder. His precise nature was unclear even to Ovid. Pliny thought that he was of Etruscan origin ...
* 24: festival of Fors Fortuna, which "seems to have been a rowdy affair" * 27: poorly attested observance in honour of the Lares; anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Stator * 29: anniversary of the Temple of Hercules Musarum, Hercules of the Muses


Quintilis (Quinctilis)

Until renamed for
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
, this month was called Quinctilis or Quintilis, originally the fifth month ''(quint-)'' when the year began in March. From this point in the calendar forward, the months had numerical designations. * 1 (Kalends): a scarcely attested anniversary of a temple to Juno Felicitas *5: Poplifugia *6–13: Ludi Apollinares, games in honour of Apollo, first held in 212 BC as a one-day event (July 13) and established as annual in 208 BC. * 6: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Muliebris * 7 (Nones): Nonae Caprotinae; ''Ancillarum Feriae'' (Festival of the Serving Women); sacrifice to Consus by unspecified public priests ''(sacerdotes publici)''; also a minor festival to the two Pales * 8:
Vitulatio The ''Vitulatio'' was an annual thanksgiving celebrated in ancient Rome on July 8, the day after the '' Nonae Caprotinae'' and following the Poplifugia on July 5. The Poplifugia is a lesser-known festival that was of obscure origin even for the Rom ...
* 14–19: a series of markets or fairs ''( mercatus)'' following the Ludi Apollinares; not religious holidays * 15 (Ides): ''
Transvectio equitum The ''Transvectio equitum'' (English: "review of the cavalry") was a parade of the young men (''iuventus'') of the Roman equestrian class (''equites'') that took place annually on 15 July. Dionysius of Halicarnassus states that the procession bega ...
,'' a procession of cavalry * 17: anniversary of the Temple of Honos and Virtus; sacrifice to Victory *18: a ''dies ater'' ("black day," meaning a day of ill omen) marking the defeat of the Romans by the Gauls at the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC, leading to the sack of Rome by the Gauls *19, 21: Lucaria * 20–30: Ludi Victoriae Caesaris, "Games of the Victorious Caesar", held annually from 45 BC * 22: anniversary of the Temple of Concordia at the foot of the Capitol *23: Neptunalia held in honour of Neptune *25: Furrinalia, ''feriae publicae'' in honour of Furrina *30: anniversary of the Temple of the Fortune of This Day ''(Fortunae Huiusque Diei)''


Augustus (Sextilis)

Until renamed for Augustus Caesar, this month was called Sextilis, originally the sixth month (sext-) when the year began in March. * 1 (Kalends): anniversary of the Temple of Spes (Hope) in the Forum Holitorium, with commemorations also for the "two Victories" on the Palatine * 3: '' Supplicia canum'' ("punishment of the dogs") an unusual dog sacrifice and procession at the temples of Iuventas ("Youth") and Summanus, connected to the Gallic siege * 5: public sacrifice ''(sacrificium publicum)'' at the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal * 9: public sacrifice to Sol Indiges * 12: sacrifice of a heifer to Hercules Invictus, with a libation from the ''
skyphos A ''skyphos'' ( grc, σκύφος; plural ''skyphoi'') is a two-handled deep wine-cup on a low flanged base or none. The handles may be horizontal ear-shaped thumbholds that project from the rim (in both Corinthian and Athenian shapes), or they m ...
'' of Hercules * 13 (Ides): festival of Diana on the Aventine ( Nemoralia), with slaves given the day off to attend; other deities honored at their temples include
Vortumnus In Roman mythology, Vertumnus (; also Vortumnus or Vertimnus) is the god of seasons, change and plant growth, as well as gardens and fruit trees. He could change his form at will; using this power, according to Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' (xiv) ...
, Fortuna Equestris, Hercules Victor (or Invictus at the Porta Trigemina), Castor and Pollux, the
Camenae In Roman mythology, the Camenae (; also ''Casmenae'', ''Camoenae'') were originally goddesses of childbirth, wells and fountains, and also prophetic deities. List of Camenae There were four Camenae: *Carmenta, or Carmentis * Egeria, or Ægeria, o ...
, and Flora *17: Portunalia in honour of
Portunus ''Portunus'' is a genus of crab which includes several important species for fisheries, such as the blue swimming crab, ''Portunus pelagicus'' and the Gazami crab, '' P. trituberculatus''. Other species, such as the three-spotted crab ('' P ...
; anniversary of the Temple of Janus *19: Vinalia Rustica, originally in honour of Jupiter, but later Venus *21: Consualia, with a sacrifice on the Aventine *23: Vulcanalia or ''Feriae Volcano'' in honour of Vulcan, along with sacrifices to Maia, the Nymphs ''in campo'' ("in the field", perhaps the Campus Martius), Ops Opifera, and a Hora *24: sacrifices to Luna on the Graecostasis; and the first of three days when the mysterious ritual pit called the '' mundus'' was opened *25: Opiconsivia or ''Feriae Opi'' in honour of Ops Consivae at the Regia *27: Volturnalia, when the Flamen Volturnalis made a sacrifice to Volturnus *28: Games at the Circus Maximus ''( circenses)'' for Sol and Luna


September

*1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Jupiter Tonans ("the Thunderer") on the Capitolium, and Juno Regina on the Aventine * 5: anniversary of one of the temples to Jupiter Stator * 5–19,
Ludi Romani The ''Ludi Romani'' ("Roman Games"; see '' ludi'') was a religious festival in ancient Rome. Usually including multiple ceremonies called '' ludi''. They were held annually starting in 366 BC from September 12 to September 14, later extended to ...
or Ludi Magni, "the oldest and most famous" of the ''ludi'' * 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus; an Epulum Iovis; an ''epulum'' to the
Capitoline Triad The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The triad held a central place in th ...
* 14: ''Equorum probatio'' ("Approval of the Horses"), a cavalry parade of the Imperial period * 20–23: days set aside for markets and fairs ''( mercatus)'' immediately following the Ludi Romani * 23: anniversary of the rededication of the Temple of Apollo in the Campus Martius; Latona was also honored *26: anniversary of the Temple of Venus Genetrix vowed by Julius Caesar


October October is the tenth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the sixth of seven months to have a length of 31 days. The eighth month in the old calendar of Romulus , October retained its name (from Latin and Greek ''ôct ...

* 1 (Kalends): ceremonies for
Fides Fides or FIDES may refer to: *Faith, trust, loyalty, or fidelity, or a religious belief * Fides (cycling team), an Italian professional cycling team in 1961 *Fides (deity), goddess of trust in Roman mythology * Fides (reliability), guide allowing ...
and the Tigillum Sororium * 3–12: Ludi Augustales, established 14 AD after the death of
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
, based on the Augustalia *4: '' Ieiunium Cereris'', a day of
fasting Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
in honour of Ceres, instituted in 191 BC as a quinquennial observance, made annual by
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
* 5: second of the three days when the '' mundus'' was opened * 6: ''dies ater'' ("black day") to mark the anniversary of the
battle of Arausio The Battle of Arausio took place on 6 October 105 BC, at a site between the town of Arausio (now Orange, Vaucluse), and the Rhône River. Ranged against the migratory tribes of the Cimbri under Boiorix and the Teutoni under Teutobod were two ...
(105 BC) * 7 (Nones): rites for Jupiter Fulgur (Jupiter of daytime lightning) and Juno Curitis * 9: rites at shrines for the Genius Publicus, Fausta Felicitas, and Venus Victrix on the Capitolium * 10: ceremonies to mark a rededication of the Temple of Juno Moneta * 11: Meditrinalia * 12: Augustalia, celebrated from 14 AD in honour of the divinized
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
, established in 19 BC with a new altar and sacrifice to
Fortuna Redux ''Fortuna Redux'' was a form of the goddess Fortuna in the Roman Empire who oversaw a return, as from a long or perilous journey. Her attributes were Fortuna's typical cornucopia, with her specific function represented by a rudder or steering oar ...
* 13:
Fontinalia Fontus or Fons (plural ''Fontes'', "Font" or "Source") was a god of wells and springs in ancient Roman religion. A religious festival called the Fontinalia was held on October 13 in his honor. Throughout the city, fountains and wellheads were ado ...
in honour of Fons * 14: ceremonies to mark a restoration of the Temple of the Penates Dei on the Velian Hill *15 (Ides): October Horse sacrifice to Mars in the Campus Martius; also ''Feriae'' of Jupiter *19: Armilustrium, a ''dies religiosus'' in honour of Mars * 26 to November 1:
Ludi Victoriae Sullanae ''Ludi'' (Latin plural) were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of, Roman religious festivals, and were also ...
, "Victory Games of Sulla", established as an annual event in 81 BC


November

*1 (Kalends): '' Ludi circenses'' to close the Sullan Victory Games *4–17: ''Ludi Plebeii'' (Plebeian Games) * 8: third of the three days when the ''mundus'' ritual pit was opened *13 (Ides):
Epulum Jovis In ancient Roman religion, the Epulum Jovis (also Epulum Iovis) was a sumptuous ritual feast offered to Jove on the Ides of September (September 13) and a smaller feast on the Ides of November (November 13). It was celebrated during the '' Ludi ...
; also ceremonies for
Feronia Feronia may mean: * Feronia (mythology), a goddess of fertility in Roman and Etruscan mythology * ''Feronia'' (plant), a genus of plants * Feronia Inc., a plantations company operating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Feronia (Sardinia) ...
and Fortuna Primigeniae * 14: a second ''Equorum probatio'' (cavalry parade), as on July 15 * 18–20: markets and fairs ''( mercatus)''


December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and is also the last of seven months to have a length of 31 days. December got its name from the Latin word ''decem'' (meaning ten) because it was ori ...

* 3: Bona Dea rites for women only *5 (Nones): a country festival for Faunus held by the '' pagi'' * 8: festival for Tiberinus Pater and Gaia *11: Agonalia for Indiges; also the (probably unrelated)
Septimontium The Septimontium was a proto-urban festival celebrated in ancient Rome by ''montani'', residents of the seven ''(sept-)'' communities associated with the hills or peaks of Rome ''(montes)'': Oppius, Palatium, Velia, Fagutal, Cermalus, Caelius, ...
* 12: ceremonies at the Temple of Consus on the Aventine * 13 (Ides): ''dies natalis'' of the Temple of Tellus, and associated lectisternium for Ceres *15: Consualia or ''Feriae'' for Consus, the second of the year *17–23: Saturnalia in honour of Saturn, with the public ritual on the 17th *18 Eponalia in honor of Epona *19: Opalia in honor of
Ops In ancient Roman religion, Ops or ''Opis'' (Latin: "Plenty") was a fertility deity and earth goddess of Sabine origin. Her equivalent in Greek mythology was Rhea. Iconography In Ops' statues and coins, she is figured sitting down, as Chthon ...
*21: Divalia in honor of Angerona; Hercules and Ceres also received a sacrifice * 22: anniversary of the Temple of the Lares Permarini in the Porticus Minucia *23: Larentalia; commemorations for the temples of Diana and Juno Regina in the
Circus Flaminius The Circus Flaminius was a large, circular area in ancient Rome, located in the southern end of the Campus Martius near the Tiber River. It contained a small race-track used for obscure games, and various other buildings and monuments. It was "bu ...
, and for the Tempestates; Sigillaria, the last day of the Saturnalia, devoted to gift-giving *25:
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti Sol Invictus (, "Unconquered Sun"), sometimes simply known as Helios, was long considered to be the official sun god of the later Roman Empire. In recent years, however, the scholarly community has become divided on Sol between traditionalists an ...
("Birthday of the Unconquered Sun"); Brumalia (both Imperial)


''Feriae conceptivae''

The following "moveable feasts" are listed roughly in chronological order. *
Compitalia In ancient Roman religion, the Compitalia ( la, Ludi Compitalicii; ) was an annual festival in honor of the Lares Compitales, household deities of the crossroads, to whom sacrifices were offered at the places where two or more ways met. This fe ...
, held sometime between December 17 (the Saturnalia) and January 5; in the later Empire, they were regularly held January 3–5, but Macrobius (5th century AD) still categorized them as ''conceptivae''. * Sementivae, a festival of sowing honoring Tellus and Ceres, placed on January 24–26 by Ovid, who regards these ''feriae'' as the same as Paganalia; Varro may indicate that the two were separate festivals. *
Fornacalia The Fornacalia was an Ancient Roman religious festival celebrated in honor of the goddess ''Fornax'', a divine personification of the oven (''fornax''), and was related to the proper baking of bread. History The Fornacalia may have been establishe ...
, a mid-February baking festival celebrated by the ''curiae'', the 30 archaic divisions of the Roman people; the date was announced by the '' curio maximus'' and set for each ''curia'' individually, with a general Fornacalia on February 17 for those who had missed their own or who were uncertain to which ''curia'' they belonged. * Amburbium, a ceremony to purify the city ''(urbs)'' as a whole, perhaps held sometime in February. * Feriae Latinae (Latin Festival), a major and very old ''conceptivae'' in April. * Ambarvalia, purification of the fields in May. The Rosalia or "Festival of Roses" also had no fixed date, but was technically not one of the ''feriae conceptivae'' with a date announced by public priests based on archaic practice.


''Feriae imperativae''

Festivals were also held in ancient Rome in response to particular events, or for a particular purpose such as to propitiate or show gratitude toward the gods. For example, Livy reports that following the Roman destruction of Alba Longa in the 7th century BC, and the removal of the Alban populace to Rome, it was reported to have rained stones on the Mons Albanus. A Roman deputation was sent to investigate the report, and a further shower of stones was witnessed. The Romans took this to be a sign of the displeasure of the Alban gods, the worship of whom had been abandoned with the evacuation of Alba Longa. Livy goes on to say that the Romans instituted a public festival of nine days, at the instigation either of a 'heavenly voice' heard on the Mons Albanus, or of the
haruspices In the religion of ancient Rome, a haruspex (plural haruspices; also called aruspex) was a person trained to practise a form of divination called haruspicy (''haruspicina''), the inspection of the entrails (''exta''—hence also extispicy ( ...
. Livy also says that it became the longstanding practice in Rome that whenever a shower of stones was reported, a festival of nine days would be ordered in response. Another irregular festival of note is the Secular Games. Over the course of several days there were sacrifices, entertainers, and games hosted by the state, attempting to be the greatest display anyone living had ever seen. These games were intended to be held every 100 years with the purpose of it occurring only once in any individuals lifetime. At one point two cycles of the Secular Games were being held simultaneously, leading there to be people who would in fact witness it twice in their life.


''Mercatus''

The noun (plural ) means "commerce" or "the market" generally, but it also refers to fairs or markets held immediately after certain . Cicero said that Numa Pompilius, the semi-legendary second king of Rome, established in conjunction with religious festivals to facilitate trade, since people had already gathered in great numbers. In early times, these may have played a role in wholesale trade, but as commerce in Rome became more sophisticated, by the late Republic they seem to have become retail fairs specialized for the holiday market. The Sigillaria attached to the Saturnalia may have been a in this sense. Surviving record , July 14–19; , September 20–23; and , November 18–20. Others may have existed. The English word "fair" derives from Latin .


"Roman holidays" as trope

By the outset of the nineteenth century and particularly in response to the carnage of the latter years of the French revolution, the term Roman holiday had taken on sinister aspects, implying an event that occasions enjoyment or profit at the expense, or derived from the suffering, of others, as in this passage from ''Childe Harold's Pilgrimage'' (1812–18) by George Gordon, Lord Byron:
There were his young barbarians all at play,
There was their Dacian mother—he their sire,
Butchered to make a Roman holiday.""Cruelty". The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase, Saying, and Quotation, 2nd edition. Susan Ratcliffe, ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002,109-110.
More benignly, the phrase was used as the title of a romantic movie set in Rome, ''
Roman Holiday ''Roman Holiday'' is a 1953 American romantic comedy film directed and produced by William Wyler. It stars Audrey Hepburn as a princess out to see Rome on her own and Gregory Peck as a reporter. Hepburn won an Academy Award for Best Actres ...
.''


See also

* Fasti


References


Further reading

* Kaczor, Idaliana (2018). “Characteristics of Roman Female Deities”. In: ''Studia Ceranea: Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe'' 8 (December): 23–41. https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.08.02. {{DEFAULTSORT:Roman Festivals