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Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (; 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) was a French lawyer and statesman who became one of the best-known, influential and controversial figures of the
French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are conside ...
. As a member of the Estates-General, the
Constituent Assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
, and the Jacobin Club, he campaigned for
universal manhood suffrage Universal manhood suffrage is a form of voting rights in which all adult male citizens within a political system are allowed to vote, regardless of income, property, religion, race, or any other qualification. It is sometimes summarized by the slo ...
, the
right to vote Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise, is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote). In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to v ...
for people of color,
Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
, actors, domestic staff and the abolition of both clerical celibacy and French involvement in the Atlantic slave trade. In 1791, Robespierre was elected as " public accuser" and became an outspoken advocate for male citizens without a political voice, for their unrestricted admission to the National Guard, to public offices, and to the commissioned ranks of the army, for the
right to petition The right to petition government for redress of grievances is the right to make a complaint to, or seek the assistance of, one's government, without fear of punishment or reprisals. In Europe, Article 44 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of ...
and the right to bear arms in self defence. Robespierre played an important part in the agitation which brought about the fall of the French monarchy on 10 August 1792 and the convocation of the
National Convention The National Convention (french: link=no, Convention nationale) was the parliament of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for the rest of its existence during the French Revolution, following the two-year Nation ...
. His goal was to create a one and indivisible France, establish equality before the law, abolish
prerogative In law, a prerogative is an exclusive right bestowed by a government or state and invested in an individual or group, the content of which is separate from the body of rights enjoyed under the general law. It was a common facet of feudal law. Th ...
s, and defend the principles of
direct democracy Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of democracy in which the electorate decides on policy initiatives without elected representatives as proxies. This differs from the majority of currently established democracies, which are repres ...
. He earned the nickname "the incorruptible" for his adherence to strict moral values. As one of the leading members of the
Paris Commune The Paris Commune (french: Commune de Paris, ) was a revolutionary government that seized power in Paris, the capital of France, from 18 March to 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard had defende ...
, Robespierre was elected as a deputy to the French Convention in early September 1792 but was soon criticised for trying to establish either a triumvirate or a
dictatorship A dictatorship is a form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, which holds governmental powers with few to no limitations on them. The leader of a dictatorship is called a dictator. Politics in a dictatorship a ...
. In April 1793, Robespierre urged the Jacobins to raise a sans-culotte army to enforce revolutionary laws and sweep away any counter-revolutionary conspirator, leading to the armed
Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 ), during the French Revolution, started after the Paris commune demanded that 22 Girondin deputies and members of the Commission of Twelve should be brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal. Jean-Paul Marat led the attack on the representatives ...
. Because of his health, Robespierre announced he was to resign but in July he was appointed as a member of the powerful Committee of Public Safety, and reorganized the Revolutionary Tribunal. Those who were not actively defending France ( modérantisme) became his enemy. During the
Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror (french: link=no, la Terreur) was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the First French Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and numerous public Capital punishment, executions took pl ...
, at least 300,000 suspects were arrested; 17,000 were officially executed, and perhaps 10,000 died in prison or without trial. Although Robespierre always had like-minded allies, the politically motivated violence that the Montagne faction often promoted disillusioned others. Eventually, disillusioned members of the Convention and the French public turned against him. He and his allies were arrested in the Paris town hall on
9 Thermidor The Coup d'état of 9 Thermidor or the Fall of Maximilien Robespierre refers to the series of events beginning with Maximilien Robespierre's address to the National Convention on 8 Thermidor Year II (26 July 1794), his arrest the next day, and ...
. Robespierre was wounded in his jaw, but it is not known if it was self-inflicted or the outcome of the skirmish. About 90 people, including Robespierre, were executed in the days after, events that initiated a period known as the Thermidorian Reaction. A divisive figure during his lifetime due to his views and policies, Robespierre remains controversial to this day.Is revolutionary violence justified? A re-examination of the Robespierre case by Nikos A. Mylonas
/ref> According to Marcel Gauchet, no one divides France more than Robespierre. His legacy and reputation continue to be subject to academic and popular debate. George Rudé estimates that he made some 900 speeches, in which he often expressed his political and philosophical views forcefully. To some, Robespierre was the Revolution's principal ideologist and embodied the country's first democratic experience, marked by the often revised and never implemented French Constitution of 1793. To others, he was the incarnation of the Terror itself.


Early life

Maximilien de Robespierre was baptized on 6 May 1758 in Arras in the old French province of Artois. His family has been traced back to the 15th century in Vaudricourt, Pas-de-Calais. His paternal grandfather, also named Maximilien de Robespierre, established himself in Arras as a lawyer. His father, François Maximilien Barthélémy de Robespierre (1732–1777), was a lawyer at the who married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault (1735–1764), the daughter of a brewer, on 3 January 1758. Maximilien was born five months later as the eldest of four children. His siblings were
Charlotte Charlotte ( ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of North Carolina. Located in the Piedmont region, it is the county seat of Mecklenburg County. The population was 874,579 at the 2020 census, making Charlotte the 16th-most populo ...
(1760–1834), Henriette (1761–1780), and Augustin (1763–1794). In July 1764, Robespierre's mother, having given birth to a stillborn daughter died twelve days later, at the age of 29. Devastated by his wife's death, François de Robespierre left Arras around 1767. His two daughters were brought up by their paternal aunts, and his two sons were taken in by their maternal grandparents. Robespierre was only six years old at the time of his mother's death. Already literate at age eight, Maximilien started attending the collège of Arras (middle school). In October 1769, on the recommendation of the bishop :fr:Louis-Hilaire de Conzié, he received a scholarship at the
Collège Louis-le-Grand In France, secondary education is in two stages: * ''Collèges'' () cater for the first four years of secondary education from the ages of 11 to 15. * ''Lycées'' () provide a three-year course of further secondary education for children betwee ...
in Paris. His fellow pupils included
Camille Desmoulins Lucie-Simplice-Camille-Benoît Desmoulins (; 2 March 17605 April 1794) was a French journalist and politician who played an important role in the French Revolution. Desmoulins was tried and executed alongside Georges Danton when the Committee ...
and Stanislas Fréron. In school, he learned to admire the idealised
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
and the rhetoric of
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
, Cato and Lucius Junius Brutus. In 1776 he was awarded first prize for
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate par ...
. He also studied the works of the Genevan '' philosophe''
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
and was attracted to many of the ideas in his ''
Contrat Social ''The Social Contract'', originally published as ''On the Social Contract; or, Principles of Political Right'' (french: Du contrat social; ou, Principes du droit politique), is a 1762 French-language book by the Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques ...
''. Robespierre became intrigued by the idea of a "virtuous self", a man who stands alone accompanied only by his conscience. His study of the classics prompted him to aspire to Roman virtues, but he sought to emulate Rousseau's citizen-soldier in particular. Robespierre's conception of revolutionary virtue and his programme for constructing political sovereignty out of
direct democracy Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of democracy in which the electorate decides on policy initiatives without elected representatives as proxies. This differs from the majority of currently established democracies, which are repres ...
came from
Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the princi ...
, Rousseau, and Mably. With Rousseau, Robespierre considered the "''volonté générale''" or the general will of the people as the basis of
political legitimacy In political science, legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a regime. Whereas ''authority'' denotes a specific position in an established government, the term ''legitimacy'' denotes a system of gove ...
.


Early politics

Robespierre studied law for three years at the Sorbonne. Upon his graduation on 31 July 1780, he received a special prize of 600 for exemplary academic success and personal good conduct. On 15 May 1781, Robespierre gained
admission to the bar An admission to practice law is acquired when a lawyer receives a license to practice law. In jurisdictions with two types of lawyer, as with barristers and solicitors, barristers must gain admission to the bar whereas for solicitors there are dist ...
. The bishop of Arras, Hilaire de Conzié, appointed him as one of the five judges in the criminal court in March 1782. Robespierre soon resigned, owing to discomfort in ruling on capital cases arising from his early opposition to the death penalty. His most famous case took place in May 1783 and involved a lightning rod in St. Omer. His defence was printed and he sent
Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading int ...
a copy. On 15 November 1783, he was elected a member of the literary Academy of Arras. In 1784 the Academy of Metz awarded him a medal for his essay on the question of whether the relatives of a condemned criminal should share his disgrace, which made him a man of letters. He and
Pierre Louis de Lacretelle Pierre Louis de Lacretelle (9 October 1751 – 5 September 1824) was a French lawyer, politician and writer. He was born in Metz, the elder brother of Jean Charles Dominique de Lacretelle. He practised as a barrister in Paris. In 1784 he shar ...
, an advocate and journalist in Paris, divided the prize. Robespierre attacked inequality before the law: the indignity of illegitimate or natural children (1786), three years later the lettres de cachet (imprisonment without a trial) and the sidelining of women in academic life. (Robespierre had particularly Louise-Félicité de Kéralio in mind). He became acquainted with
Martial Herman Martial Joseph Armand Herman (29 August 1759, Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise – 7 May 1795, Paris) (guillotined), was a lawyer and a chief judge during the Reign of Terror. His most famous cases were against Marie Antoinette and Georges Danton. As the ...
, a lawyer, the young officer and engineer Lazare Carnot and with the teacher Joseph Fouché, all of whom would play a role in his later life. Some claim Robespierre had seen Rousseau shortly before he died, but others maintain that the account was apocryphal. In August 1788, King Louis XVI announced new elections for all provinces and a gathering of the Estates-General for 1 May 1789 to solve France's serious financial and taxation problems. Robespierre participated in a discussion regarding how the French provincial government should be elected, arguing in his ''Address to the Nation of Artois'' that if the former mode of election by the members of the provincial estates was again adopted, the new Estates-General would not represent the people of France. In late February 1789, France saw a pressing crisis due to its desire for a new constitution, according to Gouverneur Morris. In his electoral district, Robespierre began to make his mark in politics with his ''Notice to the Residents of the Countryside'' of 1789 in which he attacked the local authorities. With this, he secured the support of the country electors. On 26 April 1789, Robespierre was elected as one of 16 deputies for Pas-de-Calais to the Estates-General; others were
Charles de Lameth Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English and French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''*karilaz'' (in Latin alphabet), whose meaning was " ...
and Albert de Beaumetz. When the deputies arrived at
Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; french: Château de Versailles ) is a former royal residence built by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about west of Paris, France. The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, ...
they were presented to the king and listened to Jacques Necker's three-hour-long speech about institutional and political reforms. They were informed that all voting in the Estates General of 1789 would still be "by order" not "by head", so their double representation as promised on 27 November 1788 was to be meaningless. It resulted in Abbé Sieyès opposing the veto of the King, suggesting that the Third Estate meet separately and change its name. On 6 June Robespierre made his first speech of note, attacking the church hierarchy. On 13 June, Robespierre joined the deputies, who would call themselves the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the r ...
representing 96% of the nation. On 9 July, the Assembly moved to Paris. It transformed itself into the National Constituent Assembly to discuss a new constitution and taxation system. On 13 July, the National Assembly proposed to reestablish the "bourgeois militia" in Paris to control the riots. On 14 July, the people demanded arms and stormed the Hôtel des Invalides and the Bastille. Without going into detail the town militia changed into National Guard, keeping the very poorest citizens at arm's length. Marquis de La Fayette was acclaimed their commander-in-chief. On 20 July, the Assembly decided to establish National Guards in every commune in the country. The
Gardes Françaises The French Guards (french: Régiment des Gardes françaises) were an elite infantry regiment of the French Royal Army. They formed a constituent part of the Maison militaire du roi de France ("Military Household of the King of France") under the ...
were admitted and supported to elect "new ". Discussing the matter and attacking Lally-Tollendal who called for law and order Robespierre reminded to the citizens who had defended liberty a few days before, but were not allowed to have access to it. In October he and Louvet supported Maillard after the Women's March on Versailles. The original group of nascent all-female protesters had a relatively conciliatory message, and they were augmented by more militarized and experienced male groups by the time they reached Versailles. While the Constituent Assembly occupied itself with male census suffrage, Robespierre and a few more deputies opposed the property requirements for voting and holding office. In December and January Robespierre succeeded in attracting the attention of the excluded classes, particularly Protestants in France,
Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
, blacks, servants and actors. As a frequent speaker in the Assembly, Robespierre voiced many ideas in support of the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (french: Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789, links=no), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revol ...
(1789) and constitutional provisions for the Constitution of 1791 but rarely attracted a majority among fellow deputies, according to Malcolm Crook. Robespierre, who never gave up wearing a culotte and always ''poudré, frisé, et parfumé'' (with hair powdered, curled and perfumed), seems to have been nervous, timid and suspicious. Madame de Staël described Robespierre as 'very exaggerated in his democratic principles'. He supported propositions with a coolness that had the air of conviction.


Jacobin Club

From October 1789, Robespierre lived at 30 Rue de Saintonge in Le Marais, a district with relatively wealthy inhabitants. Pierre Villiers claimed he was his secretary for several months, and they shared the apartment on the third floor. Robespierre associated with the new Society of the Friends of the Constitution, commonly known as the Jacobin Club. Originally, this organization (the Club Breton) comprised only deputies from Brittany, but after the National Assembly had moved to Paris into a former and empty monastery, the Friends of civic participation admitted non-deputies, supporting the changes in France. Among these 1,200 men, Robespierre found a sympathetic audience. Equality before the law was the keystone of the Jacobin ideology. In January he held several speeches in response to the decision-making the exercise of civil rights dependent on a certain sum in the tax. During the debate on the suffrage, Robespierre ended his speech of 25 January 1790 with a blunt assertion that 'all Frenchmen must be admissible to all public positions without any other distinction than that of virtues and talents'. He began to acquire a reputation, and on 31 March 1790 Robespierre was elected as their president. On 28 April Robespierre proposed to allow an equal number of officers and soldiers in the court martial, based on his democratic principles. Unlike
Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli ( , , ; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527), occasionally rendered in English as Nicholas Machiavel ( , ; see below), was an Italian diplomat, author, philosopher and historian who lived during the Renaissance. ...
who promoted the creation of either town or regional citizen militia, a system which after three centuries had become a "fossil institution", Robespierre supported the cooperation of all the National Guards in a general federation on 11 May. On 19 June he was elected secretary of the National Assembly. On 24 March 1790, the Assembly decided that the judicial apparatus should be completely restructured. The
departments of France In the administrative divisions of France, the department (french: département, ) is one of the three levels of government under the national level (" territorial collectivities"), between the administrative regions and the communes. Ninety ...
were reorganized; the Paris Commune was divided up into 48
sections Section, Sectioning or Sectioned may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * Section (music), a complete, but not independent, musical idea * Section (typography), a subdivision, especially of a chapter, in books and documents ** Section sig ...
and allowed to discuss the election of a new mayor on 21 May. In July Robespierre demanded "fraternal equality" in salaries. On 2 August
Jean Sylvain Bailly Jean Sylvain Bailly (; 15 September 1736 – 12 November 1793) was a French astronomer, mathematician, freemason, and political leader of the early part of the French Revolution. He presided over the Tennis Court Oath, served as the mayor of Par ...
became Paris' first elected mayor with 12.500 votes;
Georges Danton Georges Jacques Danton (; 26 October 1759 – 5 April 1794) was a French lawyer and a leading figure in the French Revolution. He became a deputy to the Paris Commune, presided in the Cordeliers district, and visited the Jacobin club. In Augu ...
had 49, Marat and Louis XVI only one. Discussing the future of
Avignon Avignon (, ; ; oc, Avinhon, label= Provençal or , ; la, Avenio) is the prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of Southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the commune had ...
Robespierre and his supporters on the galleries succeeded in silencing Mirabeau. Before the end of the year, he was seen as one of the leaders of the small body of the extreme left. Robespierre was one of "the thirty voices". Mirabeau commented to Barnave, "That man will go far—he believes everything he says." On 5 December Robespierre delivered a speech on the urgent topic of the National Guard.Robespierre and War, a Question Posed as Early as 1789? by Thibaut Poirot. In: Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française 2013/1 (No. 371)
/ref> "To be armed for personal defence is the right of every man, to be armed to defend freedom and the existence of the common fatherland is the right of every citizen". Robespierre coined the famous motto by adding the word fraternity on the flags of the National Guard. On 18 December it was decreed to supply the National Guard with 50,000 fusils.


1791

Early 1791 ''freedom of defense'' became the standard; any citizen was allowed to defend another.Journal des États généraux convoqués par Louis XVI, 28 septembre 1791 From the beginning, the authorities were concerned about this experiment without future. Derasse suggests it was a "collective suicide" by the lawyers in the Assembly. In criminal cases, the expansion of the right ... gave priority to the spoken word.H.Leuwers (2012) Defence in writing. The end of the printed legal brief (France, 1788–1792)
/ref> In 1791 Robespierre gave 328 speeches, almost one a day. On 28 January Robespierre discussed in the Assembly the organisation of the National Guard; for three years a hot topic in French newspapers.https://www.retronews.fr/frequence_terme# Early March provincial militias were abolished and the Paris département was placed above the Commune in all matters of general order and security. According to Jan ten Brink it had the right to suspend the Commune's decisions and to dispose of the army against her in case of emergency. On 27 and 28 April 1791, Robespierre opposed plans to reorganize the National Guard and restrict its membership to
active citizens Active Citizens ( el, Ενεργοί Πολίτες) is a left-wing political party in Greece. It was founded by the late Manolis Glezos, former United Democratic Left member of the Hellenic Parliament, in 2002 and joined the Coalition of the Rad ...
. It was regarded as too aristocratic. He demanded the reconstitution of the National Guard on a democratic basis. He felt that the National Guard had to become the instrument of defending liberty and no longer be a threat to it. On 9 May, the Assembly discussed the
right to petition The right to petition government for redress of grievances is the right to make a complaint to, or seek the assistance of, one's government, without fear of punishment or reprisals. In Europe, Article 44 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of ...
. Article III specifically recognised the right of active citizens to meet together to draw up petitions and addresses and present them to municipal authorities. On Sunday 15 May the
Constituent Assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
declared full and equal citizenship for all
free people of color In the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, free people of color (French: ''gens de couleur libres''; Spanish: ''gente de color libre'') were primarily people of mixed African, European, and Native American descent who were not ...
. In the debate Robespierre said: "I feel that I am here to defend the rights of men; I cannot consent to any amendment and I ask that the principle be adopted in its entirety." He descended from the rostrum in the middle of the repeated applause of the left and of all the tribunes. On 16–18 May when the elections began, Robespierre proposed and carried the motion that no deputy who sat in the Constituent assembly could sit in the succeeding Legislative assembly. The principal tactical purpose of this
self-denying ordinance The Self-denying Ordinance was passed by the English Parliament on 3 April 1645. All members of the House of Commons or Lords who were also officers in the Parliamentary army or navy were required to resign one or the other, within 40 days fr ...
was to block the ambitions of the old leaders of the Jacobins, Antoine Barnave,
Adrien Duport Adrien Duport (6 February 17596 July 1798) was a French politician, and lawyer. He was an influential advocate in the parlement, and was prominent in opposition to the ministers Calonne and Loménie de Brienne. Life Adrien Jean Françoise Dupo ...
, and Alexandre de Lameth, aspiring to create a constitutional monarchy roughly similar to that of England. On 28 May, Robespierre proposed all Frenchmen should be declared active citizens and eligible to vote. On 30 May, he delivered a speech on the abolishment of the death penalty but without success. According to Hillary Mantel: It is perfectly constructed, a brilliant fusion of logic and emotion, as much a work of art as a building or a piece of music could be.'What a man this is, with his crowd of women around him!' by Hilary Mantel. In: London Review of Books. Vol. 22 No. 7 · 30 March 2000
/ref> The following day, Robespierre attacked Abbé Raynal, who sent an address criticising the work of the Assembly and demanding the restoration of the
royal prerogative The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege and immunity, recognized in common law and, sometimes, in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy, as belonging to the sovereign and which have become widely vested in th ...
. On 10 June, Robespierre delivered a speech on the deplorable state of the police and proposed to dismiss officers. The next day, Robespierre accepted the function of "public accuser" in the criminal tribunal preparing
indictments An indictment ( ) is a formal accusation that a person has committed a crime. In jurisdictions that use the concept of felonies, the most serious criminal offence is a felony; jurisdictions that do not use the felonies concept often use that of ...
and ensuring the defence. Two days later, L'Ami du Roi, a royalist pamphlet, described Robespierre as a "lawyer for bandits, rebels and murderers". On 14 June, the abolition of the guild system was sealed; the Le Chapelier Law prohibited any kind of workers' coalition or assembly. (It concerned in the first instance as much collective petitioning by the political clubs as trade associations.) Proclaiming free enterprise as the norm upset Jean-Paul Marat, but not the urban labourer nor Robespierre. On 15 June, Pétion became president of the "tribunal criminel provisoire", after Duport refused to work with Robespierre. After Louis XVI's failed flight to Varennes, the Assembly decreed that the king be suspended from his duties on 25 June until further notice. Between 13 and 15 July, the Assembly debated the restoration of the king and his constitutional rights. Robespierre declared in the Jacobin Club on 13 July: The current French constitution is a republic with a monarch. It is therefore neither a monarchy nor a republic. She is both. Meanwhile Tout-Paris was irritated by a decree to prevent the gathering of 20,000 armed men outside the city walls to celebrate
14 July Events Pre-1600 * 982 – King Otto II and his Frankish army are defeated by the Muslim army of al-Qasim at Cape Colonna, Southern Italy. *1223 – Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father, Philip II. *1420 & ...
. The crowd on the Champ de Mars approved a petition calling for the king's trial. Alarmed at the progress of the Revolution, the moderate Jacobins in favour of a constitutional monarchy founded the club of the Feuillants on the next day, taking with them 264 deputies. In the evening, the King was restored in his functions. On Saturday 17 July, Bailly and Lafayette declared a ban on gathering followed by
martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Martia ...
. After the Champ de Mars massacre, the authorities ordered numerous arrests. Robespierre, who attended the Jacobin club, did not dare to go back to the Rue Saintonge where he lodged, and so asked
Laurent Lecointre Laurent Lecointre was a French politician, born at Versailles on 1 February 1742, and died at Guignes, Seine-et-Marne on 4 August 1805. He is also known under the name of "Lecointre de Versailles". Life Unlike almost all his colleagues of the Na ...
if he knew a patriot near the Tuileries who could put him up for the night. Lecointre suggested Duplay's house and took him there.
Maurice Duplay Maurice Duplay (1736, Saint-Didier-La Séauve - 1820, Paris) was a French carpentry contractor and revolutionary in the French Revolution. In September 1793 he became a member of the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was landlord to Maximilien de Robes ...
, a cabinetmaker and ardent admirer, lived at 398 Rue Saint-Honoré near the Tuileries. After a few days, Robespierre decided to move in permanently, although he lived in the backyard and was constantly exposed to the sound of working. He was motivated by a desire to live closer to the Assembly and the Jacobin club. In September 1792, his younger sister and brother joined him and lived in the front house, but Charlotte insisted on moving to 5 Rue St Florentin because of his increased prestige and her tensions with Madame Duplay. According to his friend, the surgeon Joseph Souberbielle, Joachim Vilate, and Duplay's daughter Élisabeth, Robespierre became engaged to Duplay's eldest daughter Éléonore, but his sister
Charlotte Charlotte ( ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of North Carolina. Located in the Piedmont region, it is the county seat of Mecklenburg County. The population was 874,579 at the 2020 census, making Charlotte the 16th-most populo ...
vigorously denied this; also his brother Augustin refused to marry her. On 3 September, the French Constitution of 1791 was accepted; ten days later by the King also. Former "advocates" lost their title, their distinctive form of dress, their status, and their professional orders and adapted their practices to the new political and legal situation. The Penal Code is dated 25 September. On 29 September, the day before the dissolution of the Assembly, Robespierre opposed Jean Le Chapelier, who wanted to proclaim an end to the revolution and restrict the freedom of the political clubs. Robespierre had been carefully preparing for this confrontation and it was the climax of his political career up to this point. Pétion and Robespierre were brought back in triumph to their homes. On 16 October, Robespierre held a speech in Arras; one week later in Béthune, a small town he wished to settle. Robespierre noticed the inns in Pas de Calais were filled with émigrés, likely
Dutch patriots The (; ) was a period of political instability in the Dutch Republic between approximately 1780 and 1787. Its name derives from the Patriots () faction who opposed the rule of the stadtholder, William V, Prince of Orange, and his supporters who ...
in exile. On 28 November, he was back in the Jacobin club, where he met with a triumphant reception.
Collot d'Herbois Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (; 19 June 1749 – 8 June 1796) was a French actor, dramatist, essayist, and revolutionary. He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror and, while he saved Madame Tussaud from the ...
gave his chair to Robespierre, who presided that evening. On 11 December 1791 Robespierre was installed as "''accusateur public''".


Opposition to war with Austria

At the time of the Declaration of Pillnitz (27 August 1791), Brissot headed the Legislative Assembly. The declaration was from
Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
and
Prussia Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an e ...
, warning the people of France not to harm Louis XVI or these nations would "militarily intervene" in the politics of France. Threatened by the declaration,
Brissot Jacques Pierre Brissot (, 15 January 1754 – 31 October 1793), who assumed the name of de Warville (an English version of "d'Ouarville", a hamlet in the village of Lèves where his father owned property), was a leading member of the Girondins dur ...
rallied the support of the Legislative Assembly. As Marat, Danton and Robespierre were not elected in the new legislature, oppositional politics often took place outside the Assembly. On 18 December 1791, Robespierre gave a (second) speech at the Jacobin club against the declaration of war. Robespierre warned against the threat of dictatorship stemming from war, in the following terms: On 25 December, Guadet, the chairman of the Assembly, suggested that 1792 should be the first year of universal liberty. stated on 29 December that a war would be a benefit to the nation and boost the economy. He urged that France should declare war against Austria ( War of the First Coalition). Marat and Robespierre opposed him, arguing that victory would create a dictatorship, while defeat would restore the king to his former powers; neither end, he said, would serve the revolution. This opposition from expected allies irritated the Girondins, and the war became a major point of contention between the factions. In his third speech on the war, Robespierre countered in the Jacobin club, "A revolutionary war must be waged to free subjects and slaves from unjust tyranny, not for the traditional reasons of defending dynasties and expanding frontiers..." Indeed, argued Robespierre, such a war could only favour the forces of counter-revolution, since it would play into the hands of those who opposed the sovereignty of the people. The risks of Caesarism were clear, for, in wartime, the powers of the generals would grow at the expense of ordinary soldiers, and the power of the king and court at the expense of the Assembly. These dangers should not be overlooked, he reminded his listeners; "...in troubled periods of history, generals often became the arbiters of the fate of their countries." Already, Robespierre knew that he had lost, as he failed to gather a majority. His speech was nevertheless published and sent to all clubs and Jacobin societies of France. On 10 February 1792, he gave a speech on how to save the State and Liberty and did not use the word ''war''. He began by assuring his audience that everything he intended to propose was strictly constitutional. He then went on to advocate specific measures to strengthen, not so much the national defences as the forces that could be relied on to defend the revolution. Not only the National Guard but also the people had to be armed, if necessary with pikes. Robespierre promoted a people's army, continuously under arms and able to impose its will on Feuillants and Girondins in the Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly. The Jacobins decided to study his speech before deciding whether it should be printed. On 15 February 1792 the installation of the criminal court of the department of Paris, took place. For Robespierre it was an ungrateful position as "public accuser"; it meant he was not allowed to the bar before the
jury A jury is a sworn body of people (jurors) convened to hear evidence and render an impartial verdict (a finding of fact on a question) officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment. Juries developed in England d ...
had spoken their verdict. Not long after Robespierre was accused by Brissot and Guadet of trying to become the idol of the people. Meanwhile the French had to deal with serious inflation and Étienne Clavière was appointed as minister of finance. On 26 March, Guadet accused Robespierre of superstition, relying on divine providence; being against the war he was also accused of acting as a secret agent for the Austrian Committee. On 29 March Robespierre demanded the creation of a non counter-revolutionary government. The Girondins planned strategies to out-manoeuvre Robespierre's influence among the Jacobins. On 10 April, Robespierre resigned the unenviable position of "public accuser". When in Spring 1792, under pressure from the Assembly, the king accepted several Girondin ministers into his cabinet, according to Louvet it was only due to a smear campaign by Robespierre and his followers that he was not also appointed. On 27 April, as part of his speech responding to the accusations by Brissot and Guadet against him, he threatened to leave the Jacobins, claiming he preferred to continue his mission as an ordinary citizen. On 17 May, Robespierre published the first issue of his weekly periodical (''The Defender of the Constitution''), in which he attacked Brissot and publicised his scepticism over the whole war movement. The periodical, printed by his neighbour Nicolas served multiple purposes: to print his speeches, to counter the influence of the royal court in public policy, and to defend him from the accusations of Girondist leaders; for Soboul its purpose was to give voice to the economic and democratic interests of the broader masses in Paris and defend their rights. Robespierre himself wrote a prospectus in which he explained to the subscribers his goals.


The insurrectionary Commune of Paris

When the Legislative Assembly declared war against Austria on 20 April 1792, Robespierre stated that the French people must rise and arm themselves completely, whether to fight abroad or to keep a lookout for despotism at home. Robespierre responded by working to reduce the political influence of the officer class and the king. On 23 April Robespierre demanded Marquis de Lafayette, the head of the Army of the Centre, to step down. While arguing for the welfare of common soldiers, Robespierre urged new promotions to mitigate the domination of the officer class by the aristocratic and royalist École Militaire and the conservative National Guard. Along with other Jacobins, he urged in the fifth issue of his magazine the creation of an " ''armée révolutionnaire''" in Paris, consisting of at least 20 or 23,000 men, to defend the city, "liberty" (the revolution), maintain order in the sections and educate the members in democratic principles; an idea he borrowed from
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
. According to Jean Jaures, he considered this even more important than the right to strike.
François Chabot François Chabot (23 October 1756 – 5 April 1794) was a French politician. Early life Born in Saint-Geniez-d'Olt (Aveyron), Chabot became a Capuchin friar in Rodez before the French Revolution, while continuing to be attracted to the works ...
declared that he had 182 documents proving the existence of a plot to dissolve the Assembly, set for 27 May. On 29 May 1792, the Assembly dissolved the Constitutional Guard, suspecting it of royalist and counter-revolutionary sympathies. In early June 1792, Robespierre proposed an end to the monarchy and the subordination of the Assembly to the General will. Following the king's veto of the Assembly's efforts to suppress on a proposal of Carnot and Servan to raise a (permanent) militia of volunteers on 8 June, the monarchy faced an abortive demonstration of 20 June. Sergent-Marceau and Panis, the administrators of police, were sent out by Pétion to urge the Sans-culottes to lay down their weapons, telling them it was illegal to present a petition in arms (to demand the king to apply the constitution, accept the decrees, and recall the ministers). Their march to the Tuileries was not banned. They invited the officials to join the procession and march along with them. Because French forces suffered disastrous defeats and a series of defections at the onset of the war, Robespierre and Marat feared the possibility of a military
coup d'état A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
. One was led by the Lafayette, head of the National Guard, who at the end of June advocated the suppression of the Jacobin Club. Robespierre publicly attacked him in scathing terms: On 2 July, the Assembly authorized the National Guard to go to the Festival of Federation on 14 July, thus circumventing a royal veto. On 11 July, the Jacobins won an emergency vote in the wavering Assembly, declaring the nation in danger and drafting all Parisians with pikes into the National Guard. (Meanwhile, 20,000 Fédérés entered the city for the celebration of 14 July; Pétion was reinstalled.) On 15 July, Billaud-Varenne in the Jacobin club outlined the program for the next insurrection; the deportation of all the Bourbons, the cleansing of the National Guard, the election of a Convention, the "transfer of the Royal veto to the people", the deportation of all "enemies of the people" and exemption of the poorest from taxation. This sentiment reflected the perspective of more radical Jacobins including those of the Marseille Club, who wrote to the mayor and the people of Paris, "Here and at Toulon, we have debated the possibility of forming a column of 100,000 men to sweep away our enemies... Paris may have need help. Call on us!" A few days later the news of the Brunswick Manifesto began sweeping through Paris. It was frequently described as unlawful and offensive to national sovereignty.


August 1792

On 1 August the Assembly voted on Carnot's proposal and ordered the municipalities that pikes should be issued to all citizens, except vagabonds, etc. On 3 August the mayor and 47 sections demanded the deposition of the king. On 4 August the government planned to evade; during the night volunteers from Marseille led by
Charles Barbaroux Charles Jean Marie Barbaroux (6 March 1767 – 25 June 1794) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period and Freemason. Biography Early career Born in Marseille, Barbaroux was educated at first by the local Oratorians, then studied l ...
moved into the Cordeliers Convent. On 5 August Robespierre announced the uncovering of a plan for the king to escape to
Château de Gaillon The Château de Gaillon is a French Renaissance castle located in Gaillon, Normandy region of France. History The somewhat battered and denuded Château de Gaillon, begun in 1502 on ancient foundations was the summer archiepiscopal residence of ...
. On 7 August Pétion suggested to Robespierre to contribute to the departure of Fédérés to appease the capital. The Council of Ministers suggested arresting Danton, Marat and Robespierre if they visited the Jacobin club. On 9 August, when the Assembly refused to impeach LaFayette, the tocsin called the sections into arms. In the evening the "''commissionaires''" of several sections (Billaud-Varenne, Chaumette,
Hébert Hébert or Hebert may refer to: People Surname * Anne Hébert, Canadian author and poet * Ashley Hebert, subject of ''The Bachelorette'' (season 7) * Bobby Hebert, National Football League player * Chantal Hébert, Canadian political commentato ...
, Hanriot, Fleuriot-Lescot, Pache, Bourdon) gathered in the town hall. At midnight the municipal council of the city was dissolved. Sulpice Huguenin, head of the sans-culottes of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, was appointed provisional president of the Insurrectionary Commune. Early in the morning on ( Friday, 10 August) 30,000 Fédérés (volunteers from the countryside) and Sans-culottes (militants from the Paris sections) led a successful assault upon the Tuileries; according to Robespierre a triumph for the "''passive''" (non-voting) citizens. The frightened Assembly suspended the king and voted for the election of a National Convention to take its place. On the night of 11 August Robespierre was elected to the Paris Commune as one of the representatives for the "''Section de Piques''", the district where he lived. The governing committee called for the summoning of a convention chosen by universal male suffrage, to form a new government and reorganize France. Camille Desmoulins thought that everything was over and that they could finally rest, but Robespierre overruled this by pointing out it could only be the beginning. On 13 August Robespierre declared himself against the strengthening of the
département In the administrative divisions of France, the department (french: département, ) is one of the three levels of government under the national level (" territorial collectivities"), between the administrative regions and the communes. Ninety ...
s. The next day Danton invited him to join the Council of Justice. Robespierre published the twelfth and last issue of "''Le Défenseur de la Constitution''", both an account and political testament. On 16 August, Robespierre presented a petition to the Legislative Assembly from the
Paris Commune The Paris Commune (french: Commune de Paris, ) was a revolutionary government that seized power in Paris, the capital of France, from 18 March to 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard had defende ...
to demand the establishment of a provisional Revolutionary Tribunal that had to deal with the "traitors" and " enemies of the people". The next day Robespierre was appointed as one of eight judges. When Robespierre refused to preside over it he was criticized. Robespierre himself preferred to represent the commune, and Fouquier-Tinville was appointed as president. The Paris commune decided to install the guillotine permanently. The Prussian army crossed the French frontier on 19 August. The Paris armed sections were incorporated in 48 battalions of the National Guard under Santerre. The Assembly decreed that all the non-juring priests had to leave Paris within a week and the country within two weeks. On 27 August, in the presence of almost half the population of Paris, a funeral ceremony was held on Place du Carrousel for the victims who were killed during storming the Tuileries. The passive citizens still strived for acceptance and the supply of weapons. Danton proposed that the Assembly should authorize house searches 'to distribute to the defenders of the "''Patrie''" the weapons that indolent or ill-disposed citizens may be hiding'. The section Sans-culottes organized itself as a surveillance committee, conducting searches and making arrests all over Paris. On 28 August, the assembly ordered a curfew for the next two days. The city gates were closed; all communication with the country was stopped. At the behest of Justice Minister Danton, thirty commissioners from the sections were ordered to search in every (suspect) house for weapons, munition, swords, carriages, and horses. "They searched every drawer and every cupboard, sounded every panel, lifted every hearthstone, inquired into every correspondence in the capital. As a result of this inquisition, more than 1,000 "suspects" were added to the immense body of political prisoners already confined in the jails and convents of the city." One of the prisoners was Beaumarchais, who spent under a week in prison for criticising the government. Marat and Robespierre both disliked
Condorcet Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet (; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), known as Nicolas de Condorcet, was a French philosopher and mathematician. His ideas, including support for a liberal economy, free and equal p ...
who proposed that the " enemies of the people" belonged to the whole nation and should be judged constitutionally in its name. A sharp conflict developed between the Legislative and the Commune and its sections. On 30 August the interim minister of Interior Roland and Guadet tried to suppress the influence of the Commune because the sections had exhausted the searches. The Assembly, tired of the pressures, declared the Commune illegal and suggested the organization of communal elections. Robespierre was no longer willing to cooperate with Brissot, who promoted the Duke of Brunswick, and Roland, who proposed that the members of the government should leave Paris, taking the treasury and the king with it. On Sunday morning 2 September the members of the Commune, gathering in the town hall to proceed the election of deputies to the National Convention, decided to maintain their seats and have Rolland and Brissot arrested. Madame de Staël who tried to escape Paris was forced by the crowd to go to the town hall. She noted that Robespierre was in the chair that day, assisted by Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne as secretaries.


The National Convention

On 2 September 1792 French National Convention election began. At the same time, Paris was organizing its defence, but it was confronted with a lack of arms for the thousands of volunteers. Danton delivered a speech in the assembly and possibly referring to the (Swiss) inmates: "We ask that anyone who refuses to serve in person, or to surrender their weapons, is punished with death." Not long after the September Massacres began. The Girondins called on the local authorities to oppose the concentration and centralization of power.


Execution of Louis XVI

The convention's unanimous declaration of a French Republic on 21 September 1792 left the fate of the former king open to debate. A commission was therefore established to examine the evidence against him while the convention's Legislation Committee considered legal aspects of any future trial. Most Montagnards favoured judgment and execution, while the Girondins were more divided concerning how to proceed, with some arguing for royal inviolability, others for clemency, and others advocating lesser punishment or banishment. On 13 November Robespierre stated in the Convention that a Constitution which Louis had violated himself, and which declared his inviolability, could not now be used in his defence. Robespierre had been taken ill and had done little other than support Saint-Just, a former colonel in the National Guard, who gave his first major speech to address and argue against the king's inviolability. On 20 November, opinion turned sharply against Louis following the discovery of a secret cache of 726 documents consisting of Louis's communications with bankers and ministers. At his trial, he claimed not to recognize documents signed by himself. With the question of the king's fate now occupying public discourse, Robespierre delivered on 3 December a speech that would define the rhetoric and course of Louis's trial. All the deputies from the Mountain were asked to attend. Robespierre argued that the dethroned king could now function only as a threat to liberty and national peace and that the members of the Assembly were not to be impartial judges but rather statesmen with responsibility for ensuring public safety: In arguing for a judgment by the elected Convention without trial, Robespierre supported the recommendations of Jean-Baptiste Mailhe, who headed the commission reporting on legal aspects of Louis's trial or judgment. Unlike some Girondins (Pétion), Robespierre specifically opposed judgment by primary assemblies or a referendum, believing that this could cause a civil war. While he called for a trial of Queen Marie-Antoinette and the imprisonment of the
Dauphin of France Dauphin of France (, also ; french: Dauphin de France ), originally Dauphin of Viennois (''Dauphin de Viennois''), was the title given to the heir apparent to the throne of France from 1350 to 1791, and from 1824 to 1830. The word ''dauphin' ...
, Robespierre advocated that the king be executed despite his opposition to capital punishment: On a proposal of Claude Bazire, a Dantonist, the National Convention decreed that Louis XVI be tried by its members. The next day on 4 December the Convention decreed all the royalist writings illegal. 26 December was the day of the last hearing of the King. On 14 January 1793, the king was unanimously voted guilty of conspiracy and attacks upon public safety. Never before the convention was like a court. On 15 January the call for a referendum was defeated by 424 votes to 287, which Robespierre led. On 16 January, voting began to determine the king's sentence; the session continued for 24 hours. Robespierre worked fervently to ensure the king's execution. The Jacobins successfully defeated the Girondins' final appeal for clemency. On 20 January half of the deputies voted for immediate death. The next day Louis XVI was guillotined.


Destruction of the Girondins

After the execution of the king, the influence of Robespierre, Danton, and the pragmatic politicians increased at the expense of the
Girondins The Girondins ( , ), or Girondists, were members of a loosely knit political faction during the French Revolution. From 1791 to 1793, the Girondins were active in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. Together with the Montagnard ...
who were largely seen as responsible for the inadequate response to the Flanders Campaign they had themselves initiated. On 24 February the Convention decreed the first, but unsuccessful Levée en Masse as the attempt to draft new troops set off an uprising in rural France. The Montagnards lost influence in Marseille, Toulon and Lyon. At the end of February, more than a thousand shops were plundered in Paris. Protesters claimed that the Girondins were responsible for the rising and high prices.


March 1793

On 10 March 1793, a provisional Revolutionary Tribunal was established; five days later the Convention appointed Fouquier-Tinville as the " accusateur public" and Fleuriot-Lescot as his assistant. On 12 March Dumouriez criticized the interference of officials of the War Ministry which employed many Jacobins. He attacked not only Pache, the new mayor, but also Marat and Robespierre. Dumouriez had long been unable to agree with the course of the Convention. He was disenchanted with the radicalization of the revolution and its politics. The Jacobin leaders were quite sure that, after the Battle of Neerwinden (1793), France had come close to a military coup mounted by Dumouriez and supported by the Girondins. On 22 March Dumouriez urged the Duke of Chartres to join his plan to dissolve the convention, to restore the French Constitution of 1791, the restoration of a
constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
and to free Marie-Antoinette and her children. On 25 March Robespierre became one of the 25 members of the Committee of General Defence to coordinate the war effort. He demanded that relatives of the king should leave France, but Marie-Antoinette should be judged. He spoke of vigorous measures to save the convention but left the committee within a few days. Marat began to promote a more radical approach, war on the Girondins. He would be arrested a few weeks later. On 3 April Robespierre declared before the Convention that the whole war was a prepared game between Dumouriez and Brissot to overthrow the
First French Republic In the history of France, the First Republic (french: Première République), sometimes referred to in historiography as Revolutionary France, and officially the French Republic (french: République française), was founded on 21 September 1792 ...
. On 5 April the Convention substantially expanded the power of the Tribunal révolutionnaire; the Montagne raised the stakes by sending out a circular from the Jacobin Club in Paris to all the sister Jacobin clubs across France, appealing for petitions demanding the recall – that is, the expulsion from the convention – of any deputés who had tried to save the life of 'the tyrant'. On 6 April the Committee of Public Safety was installed with deputies from the Plaine and the Dantonists but no Girondins or Robespierrists. Robespierre who was not elected was pessimistic about the prospects of parliamentary action and told the Jacobins that it was necessary to raise an army of Sans-culottes to defend Paris and arrest infidel deputies, naming and accusing Brissot, Isnard,
Vergniaud Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud (; 31 May 1753 – 31 October 1793) was a French lawyer and statesman, a figure of the French Revolution. A deputy to the Assembly from Bordeaux, Vergniaud was an eloquent orator. He was a supporter of Jacques Pier ...
, Guadet and Gensonné. There are only two parties according to Robespierre: the people and its enemies. One of them was
Charles Barbaroux Charles Jean Marie Barbaroux (6 March 1767 – 25 June 1794) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period and Freemason. Biography Early career Born in Marseille, Barbaroux was educated at first by the local Oratorians, then studied l ...
, a leader of the Fédérés and popular in the South. Robespierre's speeches during April 1793 reflect the growing radicalization. "I ask the sections to raise an army large enough to form the kernel of a Revolutionary Army that will draw all the sans-culottes from the departments to exterminate the rebels..."Hazan, E. (2014) A People's History of the French Revolution. "Force the government to arm the people, who in vain demanded arms for two years." Suspecting further treason, Robespierre invited the convention to vote the death penalty against anyone who would propose negotiating with the enemy. Marat was imprisoned calling for a military tribunal as well as the suspension of the convention. On 15 April the convention was stormed by the people from the sections, demanding the removal of those Girondins who had defended the King. Till 17 April the convention discussed the
Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1793 The Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1793 (French: ''Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen de 1793'') is a French political document that preceded that country's first republican constitution. The Declaration ...
, a political document that preceded that country's first republican constitution. On 18 April the Commune announced an insurrection against the convention after the arrest of Marat. On 19 April Robespierre opposed article 7 on equality before the law; on 22 April the convention discussed article 29 on the right of resistance. On 24 April 1793 Robespierre presented his version with four articles on the right of property. He was in effect questioning the individual right of ownership, and advocated a progressive tax and fraternity between the people of all the nations. On 27 April the convention decreed (on the proposal of Danton) to send 20,000 additional forces to the departments in revolt. According to François Mignet the commune was destined to triumph over the convention. Pétion called for the help of supporters of law and order.


May

On 1 May, according to the Girondin deputé Dulaure 8,000 armed men prepared to go to the Vendée surrounded the convention and threatened not to leave if the emergency measures (a decent salary and maximum on
food prices Food prices refer to the average price level for food across countries, regions and on a global scale. Food prices have an impact on producers and consumers of food. Price levels depend on the food production process, including food marketing ...
) demanded were not adopted. On 4 May the convention agreed to support the families of soldiers and sailors who left their home to fight the enemy. Robespierre pressed ahead with his strategy of class war. On 8 and 12 May in the Jacobin Club, Robespierre restated the necessity of founding a revolutionary army to be funded by a tax on the rich and would be intended to defeat aristocrats and counter-revolutionaries inside both the convention and across France. He said that public squares should be used to produce arms and pikes. Mid May Marat and the Commune supported him publicly and secretly. After hearing these statements, the Girondins became concerned. On 18 May Guadet called for the closing of all the political institutions in Paris and to examine the "''exactions''" and to replace municipal authorities. Within a few days, the Convention decided to set up a commission of inquiry of twelve members, with a very strong Girondin majority. On 24 May the Twelve proposed reinforcing the National Guard patrols round the convention. Jacques Hébert, the editor of Le Père Duchesne, was arrested after attacking or calling for the death of the 22 Girondins. The next day, the Commune demanded that Hébert be released. The president of the Convention
Maximin Isnard Maximin Isnard (; 16 November 1755 Grasse, Alpes-Maritimes – 12 March 1825 Grasse), French revolutionary, was a dealer in perfumery at Draguignan when he was elected deputy for the ''département'' of the Var to the Legislative Assembly, where ...
, who had enough of the tyranny of the Commune, threatened with the destruction of Paris. On 26 May, after a week of silence, Robespierre delivered one of the most decisive speeches of his career. He openly called at the Jacobin Club "to place themselves in insurrection against corrupt deputies". Isnard declared that the convention would not be influenced by any violence and that Paris had to respect the representatives from elsewhere in France. The Convention decided Robespierre would not be heard. (During the whole debate Robespierre sat on the gallery.) The atmosphere became extremely agitated. Some deputies were willing to kill if Isnard dared to declare civil war in Paris; the president was asked to give up his seat. On 28 May a weak Robespierre excused himself twice for his physical condition but attacked in particular Brissot of royalism. He referred to 25 July 1792 where their points of view split. Robespierre left the convention after applause from the left side and went to the town hall. There he called for an armed insurrection against the majority of the convention. "If the Commune does not unite closely with the people, it violates its most sacred duty", he said. In the afternoon the Commune demanded the creation of a Revolutionary army of sansculottes in every town of France, including 20,000 men to defend Paris. The 29 May was occupied in preparing the public mind. Robespierre admitted he almost gave up his career because of his anxieties since he became a deputy. The delegates representing 33 of the Paris sections formed an insurrectionary committee. Henriot was elected as "''Commandant-Général''" of the Parisian National Guard. Saint-Just was added to the Committee of Public Safety; Couthon became secretary. The next day the tocsin in the Notre-Dame was rung and the city gates were closed; the Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June began. Hanriot, was ordered to fire a cannon on the Pont-Neuf as a sign of alarm. Danton rushed to the tribune: "Break up the Commission of Twelve! You have heard the thunder of the cannon. Robespierre urged the arrest of the Girondins. Around ten in the morning 12,000 armed citizens appeared to protect the Convention against the arrest of Girondin deputies. On Saturday 1 June the Commune gathered almost all day and devoted it to the preparation of a great movement. The "''Comité insurrectionnel''" ordered Hanriot to surround the Convention 'with a respectable armed force'. In the evening 40,000 men surrounded the building to force the arrest. Marat lead the attack on the representatives, who had voted against the execution of the King and since then paralyzed the Convention. The Committee of Public Safety postponed decisions on the accused deputies for three days; Marat demanded a decision within a day. Unsatisfied with the result the commune demanded and prepared a "''Supplement''" to the revolution. Hanriot offered (or was ordered) to march the National Guard from the town hall to the
National Palace Buildings called National Palace include: * National Palace (Dominican Republic), in Santo Domingo *National Palace (El Salvador), in San Salvador *National Palace (Ethiopia), in Addis Ababa; also known as the Jubilee Palace *National Palace (Guatem ...
. The next morning a large force of armed citizens, some estimated 80,000 or 100,000, but Danton spoke of only 30,000, surrounded the Convention with artillery. "The armed force", Hanriot said, "will retire only when the convention has delivered to the people the deputies denounced by the Commune." Two pieces were directed upon the convention, who, retiring to the gardens, sought an outlet at various points, but found all the issues guarded. Confronted on all sides by bayonets and pikes, the deputies returned to the meeting hall. The Girondins believed they were protected by the law, but the people in the galleries called for their arrest. Twenty-two Girondins were seized one by one after some juggling with names. They finally decided that 31 deputies were not to be imprisoned, but only subject to house arrest; scarcely half of the assembly taking part in the vote. The Montagnards now had unchallenged control of the convention; according to Couthon the citizens of Paris had saved the country. The Girondins, going to the provinces, joined the counter-revolution. Within two weeks and for three months almost fifty departments were in rebellion. During the insurrection Robespierre had scrawled a note in his memorandum-book: On 3 June French the convention decided to split up the land belonging to Émigrés and sell it to farmers. On 12 June Robespierre wanted to resign lacking strength. On 13 July Robespierre defended the plans of Le Peletier to teach revolutionary ideas in schools. On the following day the convention rushed to praise Marat – who was murdered in his bathtub – for his fervor and revolutionary diligence. Opposing
Pierre-Louis Bentabole Pierre Louis Bentabole (or Bentabolle) was a French Revolution, revolutionary Frenchman, born in Landau Haut Rhin on 4 June 1756 and died in Paris on 22 April 1798. As lawyer, he presided practiced in the district of Hagenau and Saverne; he was d ...
Robespierre simply called for an inquiry into the circumstances of his death. He did not pronounce his surname as they were never friends. On 17 or 22 July the ''Émigres'' were expropriated by decree; proofs of ownership had to be collected and burnt.


Reign of Terror

The French government faced serious internal challenges, when the provincial cities rebelled against the more radical revolutionaries in Paris. Corsica declared formal secession from France and requested the protection of the British government;
Pasquale Paoli Filippo Antonio Pasquale de' Paoli (; french: link=no, Pascal Paoli; 6 April 1725 – 5 February 1807) was a Corsican patriot, statesman, and military leader who was at the forefront of resistance movements against the Genoese and later ...
forced the
Bonapartes Italian and Corsican: ''Casa di Buonaparte'', native_name_lang=French, coat of arms=Arms of the French Empire3.svg, caption=Coat of arms assumed by Emperor Napoleon I, image_size=150px, alt=Coat of Arms of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, typ ...
to move to the mainland. In July France threatened to plunge into civil war, attacked by the aristocracy in Vendée and Brittany, by federalist revolts in Lyon, in Le Midi, and in Normandy, in a struggle with all Europe and the foreign factions. On 27 July 1793, Robespierre was added to the Committee of Public Safety and replaced Gasparin who would be sent to the
Army of the Alps The Army of the Alps (''Armée des Alpes'') was one of the French Revolutionary armies. It existed from 1792–1797 and from July to August 1799, and the name was also used on and off until 1939 for France's army on its border with Italy. 1792� ...
and Marseille. It was the second time he held any executive office to coordinate the war effort. Robespierre was criticized for being the most prominently known member of the Committee, but officially the Committee was non-hierarchical. On 4 August the French Constitution of 1793 passed through the convention. Article 109 stated: All Frenchmen are soldiers; all shall be exercised in the use of arms. From the moment of its acceptance, it was made meaningless, first by the Convention itself, which had been charged to dissolve itself on completion of the document, then by the construction of the working institutions of the Terror. On 21 August Robespierre was elected as president of the convention. On 23 August Lazare Carnot was appointed in the committee; the provisional government introduced the Levée en masse against the enemies of the republic. Couthon carried a law punishing any person who should sell assignats at less than their nominal value with imprisonment for twenty years in chains. Robespierre was particularly concerned that public officials should be virtuous. He had sent his brother Augustin (and sister Charlotte) to Marseille and Nice to suppress the federalist insurrection. At the end of August Toulon hoisted the royal flag and delivered the port to the British navy. Both the strategic importance of the naval base and the prestige of the Revolution demanded that the French recapture Toulon. On 4 September, the Sans-culottes again invaded the convention. They demanded tougher measures against rising prices and the setting up of a system of terror to root out the counter-revolution, despite the amount of assignats in circulation doubled in the previous months. On 5 September the Convention decided on a proposal of Chaumette, supported by Billaud and Danton to form a revolutionary army of 6,000 men in Paris to sweep away conspirators, to execute revolutionary laws and to protect subsistence.Richard T. Bienvenu (1968) The Ninth of Thermidor, p. 22; R.R. Palmer (1970) The Twelve who ruled, p. 47-51 The next day the ultra's Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne were elected in the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee of General Security which was tasked with rooting out crimes and preventing counter-revolution began to manage the country's National Gendarmerie and finance. It was decreed that all the foreigners in the country should be arrested. On 8 September, the banks and exchange offices were closed to prevent the exchange of forged assignats and the export of capital, making investments in foreign countries punishable with death. Augustin Robespierre and
Antoine Christophe Saliceti Antoine Christophe Saliceti (baptised in the name of ''Antonio Cristoforo Saliceti'': ''Antoniu Cristufaru Saliceti'' in Corsican; 26 August 175723 December 1809) was a French politician and diplomat of the Revolution and First Empire. Early c ...
appointed the young Napoleon as provisional artillery commander of the republican forces in
Toulon Toulon (, , ; oc, label= Provençal, Tolon , , ) is a city on the French Riviera and a large port on the Mediterranean coast, with a major naval base. Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, and the Provence province, Toulon is th ...
and who established a battery called the "sans-culottes". On 11 September the power of the Comité de Salut Public was extended for one month. Jacques Thuriot, a firm supporter of Danton, resigned on 20 September because of irreconcilable differences with Robespierre and became one of the bolder opponents of Maximilien Robespierre. The Revolutionary Tribunal was reorganized and divided into four sections, of which two were always active at the same time. On 29 September, the Committee introduced the
maximum In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima (the respective plurals of maximum and minimum) of a function, known collectively as extrema (the plural of extremum), are the largest and smallest value of the function, either within a given r ...
, particularly in the area which supplied Paris. According to
Augustin Cochin (historian) Augustin Cochin (22 December 1876 – 8 July 1916) was a French historian of the French Revolution. Much of his work was posthumously published in an incomplete state after he was killed in action in World War I. Career overview Born in Paris, C ...
the shops were empty within a week. On 1 October the Convention decided to exterminate the "brigands" in the Vendée before the end of the month. On 3 October Robespierre was convinced the convention was divided up in two factions, friends of the people and conspirators. He defended 73 Girondins as useful, but more than 20 were sent on trial. He attacked Danton, who had refused to take a seat in the Comité, and believed a stable government was needed which could resist the orders of the Comité de Salut Public. On 8 October the Convention decided to arrest Brissot and the Girondins. Robespierre called for the dissolution of the convention; he believed they would be admired by posterity. Cambon replied that was not his intention; applause followed and the session was closed. After the Siege of Lyon Couthon entered the city, the centre of a revolt. On 10 October the Convention decreed to recognize the Committee of Public Safety as the supreme " Revolutionary Government", (which was consolidated on 4 December). The provisional government would be revolutionary until peace according to Saint-Just. Every eight days the Committee of Public Safety would report to the convention. Though the Constitution was overwhelmingly popular and its drafting and ratification buoyed popular support for the
Montagnards Montagnard (''of the mountain'' or ''mountain dweller'') may refer to: *Montagnard (French Revolution), members of The Mountain (''La Montagne''), a political group during the French Revolution (1790s) ** Montagnard (1848 revolution), members of th ...
, on 10 October the Convention set it aside indefinitely until a future peace. They would instead continue governing without a Constitution. The Committee became a War Cabinet with unprecedented powers over the economy as well as the political life of the nation, but it had to get the approval of the convention for any legislation and could be changed any time. Danton who was dangerously ill for a few weeks, probably knowing that he could not get along with Robespierre, quit politics and set off to
Arcis-sur-Aube Arcis-sur-Aube (, literally ''Arcis on Aube'') is a commune in the Aube department in the Grand Est region of north-central France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as ''Arcisiens'' or ''Arcisiennes''. The commune has been awarded "th ...
with his 16-year-old wife, who pitied the Queen since her trial began. On 12 October when Hébert accused Marie-Antoinette of incest with her son, Robespierre had dinner with some strong supporters (Barère,
Louis de Saint-Just Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just (; 25 August 17679 Thermidor, Year II 8 July 1794, was a French revolutionary, political philosopher, member and president of the French National Convention, a Jacobin club leader, and a major figure of the F ...
and Joachim Vilate). Discussing the matter, Robespierre broke his plate with his fork and called Hébert an "imbécile". According to Vilate, Robespierre then had already two or three bodyguards. One of them was his neighbor, the printer Nicolas. On 25 October the Revolutionary government was accused of doing nothing. At the end of the month, several members of the General Security Committee were assisted by were sent into the provinces to suppress active resistance against the Jacobins. Fouché and Collot d'Herbois halted the
revolt of Lyon against the National Convention The revolt of Lyon against the National Convention was a counter-revolutionary movement in the city of Lyon during the time of the French Revolution. It was a revolt of moderates against the more radical National Convention, the third government d ...
, Jean-Baptiste Carrier ordered the drownings at Nantes;
Tallien Jean-Lambert Tallien (, 23 January 1767 – 16 November 1820) was a French politician of the revolutionary period. Though initially an active agent of the Reign of Terror, he eventually clashed with its leader, Maximilien Robespierre, and is b ...
succeeded in feeding the guillotine in Bordeaux; Barras and Fréron went to Marseille and Toulon. Saint-Just and Le Bas visited the Rhine Army to watch the generals and punish officers for the least sign of treasonous timidity, or lack of initiative. His landlord,
Maurice Duplay Maurice Duplay (1736, Saint-Didier-La Séauve - 1820, Paris) was a French carpentry contractor and revolutionary in the French Revolution. In September 1793 he became a member of the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was landlord to Maximilien de Robes ...
, became a member of the "Tribunal Révolutionair". On 31 October Brissot and 21 Girondins were guillotined in 36 minutes by Charles-Henri Sanson. On 8 November the director of the manufacture of assignats and Manon Roland were executed. The Convention suppressed on 13 November under terrifying penalties, all commerce in the precious metals. On the morning of 14 November,
François Chabot François Chabot (23 October 1756 – 5 April 1794) was a French politician. Early life Born in Saint-Geniez-d'Olt (Aveyron), Chabot became a Capuchin friar in Rodez before the French Revolution, while continuing to be attracted to the works ...
burst into Robespierre's room dragging him from bed with accusations of counter-revolution and a foreign conspiracy, waving a hundred thousand livres in assignat notes, claiming that a band of royalist plotters gave it to him to buy
Fabre d'Eglantine Fabre or Fabré is a surname of Occitan French origin, and a given name. Notable people with the name include: * André Fabre (born 1945), French thoroughbred horse racing trainer * Cándido Fabré, Cuban musician, songwriter and singer * Cathe ...
's vote, along with others, to liquidate some stock in the
French East India Company The French East India Company (french: Compagnie française pour le commerce des Indes orientales) was a colonial commercial enterprise, founded on 1 September 1664 to compete with the English (later British) and Dutch trading companies in th ...
. Chabot was arrested three days later; Courtois urged Danton to return to Paris immediately. On 25 November, the remains of Comte de Mirabeau were removed from the
Pantheon Pantheon may refer to: * Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building Arts and entertainment Comics *Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization * ''Pantheon'' (Lone St ...
and replaced with those of Jean-Paul Marat. It was on the initiative of Robespierre when it became known that in his last months the count had secretly conspired with the court of Louis XVI. Under intense emotional pressure from Lyonnaise women, Robespierre suggested that a secret commission be set up to examine the cases of the Lyon rebels, to see if injustices had been committed. This is the closest Robespierre came to adopting a public position against the use of terror. On 3 December Robespierre accused Danton in the Jacobin club of feigning an illness to emigrate to Switzerland. Danton showed too often his vices and not his virtue. Robespierre was stopped in his attack. The gathering was closed after applause for Danton. On 4 December, by the Law of Revolutionary Government, the independence of departmental and local authorities came to an end, when extensive powers of the Committee of Public Safety were codified. This law, submitted by Billaud, implemented within 24 hours, was a drastic decision against the independence of deputies and commissionaires on a mission; coordinated action among the sections became illegal. The Commune of Paris and the revolutionary committees in the sections had to obey the law, the two Committees, and the convention. On 7 December all the in France were dismissed within 24 hours (except the ones authorized by the convention as in Paris).


The "enemy within"

On 5 December the journalist
Camille Desmoulins Lucie-Simplice-Camille-Benoît Desmoulins (; 2 March 17605 April 1794) was a French journalist and politician who played an important role in the French Revolution. Desmoulins was tried and executed alongside Georges Danton when the Committee ...
launched a new journal, . He defended Danton and warned not to exaggerate the revolution. He compared Robespierre with
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
and argued that the Revolution should return to its original ideas en vogue around 10 August 1792.Davidson, Ian. The French Revolution, p. 211 In the fourth issue Desmoulins took up the cause of the 200,000 defenceless civilians and that had been detained in prisons as suspects. A Committee of Grace had to be established. Desmoulins addressed Robespierre directly, writing, "My dear Robespierre... my old school friend... Remember the lessons of history and philosophy: love is stronger, more lasting than fear."Scurr, 298 On 8 December,
Madame du Barry Jeanne Bécu, Comtesse du Barry (19 August 1743 – 8 December 1793) was the last '' maîtresse-en-titre'' of King Louis XV of France. She was executed, by guillotine, during the French Revolution due to accounts of treason—particularly bei ...
was guillotined. On receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before the Revolutionary Tribunal Étienne Clavière committed suicide. On 12 December Robespierre attacked the wealthy foreigner Cloots in the Jacobin club of being a Prussian spy.
Thomas Paine Thomas Paine (born Thomas Pain; – In the contemporary record as noted by Conway, Paine's birth date is given as January 29, 1736–37. Common practice was to use a dash or a slash to separate the old-style year from the new-style year. In th ...
lost his seat in the convention, was arrested, and locked up having been friendly with Brissot. (Robespierre denounced the "dechristianizers" as foreign enemies.) The Indulgents mounted an attack on the Committee of Public Safety being murderers. On 17 December
Vincent Vincent ( la, Vincentius) is a male given name derived from the Roman name Vincentius, which is derived from the Latin word (''to conquer''). People with the given name Artists *Vincent Apap (1909–2003), Maltese sculptor *Vincent van Gogh ...
and Ronsin were arrested. On 21 December
Collot d'Herbois Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (; 19 June 1749 – 8 June 1796) was a French actor, dramatist, essayist, and revolutionary. He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror and, while he saved Madame Tussaud from the ...
declared: "...if I had arrived two days later I would perhaps have been put under
indictment An indictment ( ) is a formal accusation that a person has committed a crime. In jurisdictions that use the concept of felonies, the most serious criminal offence is a felony; jurisdictions that do not use the felonies concept often use that ...
myself." Desmoulins counselled Robespierre not to attempt to build the Republic on such a rare quality as virtue. On the next day, 25 December, thoroughly provoked by Desmoulins' insistent challenges, Robespierre produced his Report on the Principles of Revolutionary Government. Robespierre replied to the plea for an end to the Terror, justifying the collective dictatorship of the National Convention, administrative centralization, and the purging of local authorities. He said he had to avoid two cliffs: indulgence and severity. He could not consult the 18th-century political authors, because they had not foreseen such a course of events. He protested against the various factions ébertists and Dantoniststhat threatened the government. Robespierre strongly believed that the Terror was still necessary; "the Government has to defend itself" gainst conspiratorsand "to the enemies of the people it owes only death." According to R.R. Palmer and Donald C. Hodges, this was the first important statement in modern times of a philosophy of
dictatorship A dictatorship is a form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, which holds governmental powers with few to no limitations on them. The leader of a dictatorship is called a dictator. Politics in a dictatorship a ...
. Others see it as a natural consequence of political instability and conspiracy.


February/March

In his ''Report on the Principles of Political Morality'' of 5 February 1794, Robespierre praised the revolutionary government and argued that terror and virtue were necessary:
If virtue is the spring of a popular government in times of peace, the spring of that government during a revolution is virtue combined with terror: virtue, without which terror is destructive; terror, without which virtue is impotent. Terror is only justice prompt, severe, and inflexible; it is then an emanation of virtue; it is less a distinct principle than a natural consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing wants of the country ... The government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny.{{cite web, url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1794robespierre.html , title=On the Principles of Political Morality, February 1794, publisher=Modern History Sourcebook, year=1997
Aulard sums up the Jacobin train of thought, "All politics, according to Robespierre, must tend to establish the reign of virtue and confound vice. He reasoned thus: those who are virtuous are right; error is a corruption of the heart; error cannot be sincere; error is always deliberate." From 13 February to 13 March 1794, Robespierre had withdrawn from active business on the Committee due to illness. On 19 February, Robespierre decided, therefore, to return to the Duplays. Saint-Just was elected president of the convention for the next two weeks. Early March in a speech at the Cordeliers Club, Hébert attacked Robespierre on the violation of human rights and Danton on being too soft. Hébert, the voice of the Sans-culottes, used the latest issue of {{lang, fr, Le Père Duchesne to criticize Robespierre. He managed to acquire a small army of secret agents, which reported to him. (There were queues and near-riots at the shops and in the markets; there were strikes and threatening public demonstrations.) Some of the Hébertistes and their friends were calling for a new insurrection. On the night of 13–14 March, Hébert and 18 of his followers were arrested as the agents of foreign powers. On 15 March, Robespierre reappeared in the convention.{{efn, On 16 March Robespierre was sharply critical of Amar's report, which presented the scandal around Fabre and Chabot as purely a matter of fraud. Robespierre insisted that it was a foreign plot, demanded that the report be re-written, and used the scandal as the basis for rhetorical attacks on
William Pitt the Younger William Pitt the Younger (28 May 175923 January 1806) was a British statesman, the youngest and last prime minister of Great Britain (before the Acts of Union 1800) and then first prime minister of the United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Ir ...
he believed was involved. Subsequently, he joined Saint-Just in his attacks on Hébert.{{sfn, Scurr, 2006 The leaders of the "''armées révolutionnaires''" were denounced by the Revolutionary Tribunal as accomplices of Hébert.The public prosecutor of the terror, Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville, p. 250
/ref>
/ref>{{efn, On 27 March on the proposal of Barère the {{lang, fr, armée revolutionnaire, for seven months active in Paris and surroundings, was disbanded, except their artillery. Their infantry and cavalry seem to be merged with other regiments. Around twenty people, ( Cloots and De Kock) were guillotined on the evening of 24 March; their death of was a sort of carnival, a pleasant spectacle according to Michelet's witnesses. On 25 March Condorcet was arrested as he was seen as an enemy of the Revolution; he committed suicide two days later. On 29 March Danton met again with Robespierre privately; afterwards, Marat's sister urged him to take the offensive. On 30 March the two committees decided to arrest Danton and Desmoulins after Saint-Just became uncharacteristically angry.{{sfn, Schama, 1989, pp=816–817 On 31 March Saint-Just publicly attacked both. In the convention, criticism was voiced against the arrests, which Robespierre silenced with "...whoever trembles at this moment is guilty." Legendre suggested that "before you listen to any report, you send for the prisoners, and hear them." Robespierre replied "It would be violating the laws of impartiality to grant to Danton what was refused to others, who had an equal right to make the same demand. This answer silenced at once all solicitations in his favour." From 21 March – 5 April Tallien was president of the convention, but could not prevent the final triumph of Robespierre. No friend of the Dantonists dared speak up in case he too should be accused of putting friendship before virtue.{{sfn , Linton , 2013 , p=226


April

On 2 April the trial began on charges of conspiracy with the
Duke of Orléans Duke of Orléans (french: Duc d'Orléans) was a French royal title usually granted by the King of France to one of his close relatives (usually a younger brother or son), or otherwise inherited through the male line. First created in 1344 by King ...
and Dumouriez. Corruption and a financial scandal involving the
French East India Company The French East India Company (french: Compagnie française pour le commerce des Indes orientales) was a colonial commercial enterprise, founded on 1 September 1664 to compete with the English (later British) and Dutch trading companies in th ...
provided a "convenient pretext" for Danton's downfall. Hanriot had been informed not to arrest the president and the "public accuser" of Revolutionary Tribunal. The Dantonists were not serving the people. They had become false patriots, who had preferred personal and foreign interests to the welfare of the nation. "Danton had been a traitor from the beginning of the Revolution and the emergency law voted to stifle his resounding voice make this one of the blackest moments in the whole history of the Revolution." Fouquier-Tinville asked the tribunal to order the defendants who "confused the hearing" and insulted "National Justice" to the guillotine. The defendants, of whom nine were députés of the convention, were removed from the room before the verdict was delivered. Desmoulins struggled to accept his fate and accused Robespierre, the Committee of General Security, and the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was dragged up the scaffold by force. On the last day of their trial
Lucile Desmoulins Anne-Lucile-Philippe Desmoulins, born Laridon-Duplessis (18 January 1770 in Paris – 13 April 1794) was a French revolutionary, diarist, and author during the French Revolution. She was married to the revolutionary Camille Desmoulins. She wa ...
was imprisoned. She was accused of organizing a revolt against the patriots and the tribunal to free her husband and Danton. She admitted to having warned the prisoners of a course of events as in September 1792, and that it was her duty to revolt against it. Remarkably Robespierre was not only their eldest friend but also witnessed at their marriage in December 1790, together with Pétion and Brissot. On 1 April Lazare Carnot proposed the provisional executive council of six ministers be suppressed and the ministries be replaced by twelve
Committees A committee or commission is a body of one or more persons subordinate to a deliberative assembly. A committee is not itself considered to be a form of assembly. Usually, the assembly sends matters into a committee as a way to explore them more ...
reporting to the Committee of Public Safety.Hazan, E. (2014) A People's History of the French Revolution. The proposal was unanimously adopted by the National Convention and set up by
Martial Herman Martial Joseph Armand Herman (29 August 1759, Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise – 7 May 1795, Paris) (guillotined), was a lawyer and a chief judge during the Reign of Terror. His most famous cases were against Marie Antoinette and Georges Danton. As the ...
on 8 April. Carnot becoming more powerful argued with both Robespierre and St Just.{{cite journal , jstor=42844797 , title=Misgivings About Revolution: Robespierre, Carnot, Saint-Just , last1=Moore , first1=Barrington , journal=French Politics and Society , year=1998 , volume=16 , issue=4 , pages=17–36 When Barras and Fréron paid a visit to Robespierre, they were received in an extremely unfriendly manner. (Robespierre was without the spectacles he usually wore in public.) At the request of Robespierre, the Convention orders the transfer of the ashes of Jean-Jacques Rousseau to the Panthéon. On 16 April, it was decreed to centralize the investigation of court records and to bring all the political suspects in France to the Revolutionary Tribunal to Paris; the two committees received the power to interrogate them immediately. On 17 April foreigners were no longer allowed to travel through France or visit a Jacobin club;
Dutch patriots The (; ) was a period of political instability in the Dutch Republic between approximately 1780 and 1787. Its name derives from the Patriots () faction who opposed the rule of the stadtholder, William V, Prince of Orange, and his supporters who ...
who had fled to France before 1790 were excluded. On 22 April Malesherbes, a lawyer who had defended the king and the deputés Isaac René Guy le Chapelier and
Jacques Guillaume Thouret Jacques Guillaume Thouret (30 April 1746 – 22 April 1794) was a French Girondin revolutionary, lawyer, president of the National Constituent Assembly and victim of the guillotine. Biography Born at Pont-l'Évêque, Calvados ( Normandy) t ...
, four times elected president of the
Constituent Assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
were taken to the scaffold. He helped run the General Police Bureau and expanded its remit within a week when Saint-Just left Paris for the army in the north.{{sfn , Linton , 2013 , p=235


June

In May, the Convention decreed, that the death penalty should be inflicted on any person convicted of "having asked, before a bargain was concluded, in what money payment was to be made." On 5 June François Hanriot ordered the detention of every baker in Paris who sold his bread to people without (distribution) card or from another section. On 10 June
Georges Couthon Georges Auguste Couthon (, 22 December 1755 – 28 July 1794) was a French politician and lawyer known for his service as a deputy in the Legislative Assembly during the French Revolution. Couthon was elected to the Committee of Public Safety o ...
introduced the Law of 22 Prairial. The law would free the Revolutionary Tribunals from control by the Convention and would greatly strengthen the position of public accusers by limiting the ability of suspects to defend themselves. Furthermore, the law broadened the sorts of charges that could be brought so that virtually any criticism of the government became criminal. The legal defence was sacrificed in favor of efficiency and centralization by banning any assistance for defendants brought before the revolutionary tribunal. "If this law passes," cried a deputy, "all we have to do is to blow our brains out." According to Fouquier-Tinville after Amar, Vadier proposed to change a few articles. Fouquier, who feared to be incapable to deal with the number of trials sent him a letter, but Robespierre didn't reply. Not long after the committee decided to organize batches of 50 people. The Tribunal became a simple court of condemnation refusing suspects the right of counsel and allowing only one of two verdicts – complete acquittal or death and that based not on evidence but on the moral conviction of the jurors. The courtroom was renovated to allow sixty people to be sentenced simultaneously. Within three days, 156 people were sent in batches to the guillotine; all the members of Parliament of Toulouse were executed.{{sfn, Israel, 2014, p=570 The guillotine was moved to the Faubourg Saint-Antoine in order to stand out less. According to François Furet, the prisons were overpopulated; they housed over 8,000 "suspects" at the beginning of Thermidor year II.{{sfn, Furet, Ozouf, 1989b, p=143 The amount of death sentences doubled. The commune had to solve serious problems in the cemeteries because of the smell. Mid-July two new mass graves were dug at
Picpus Cemetery Picpus Cemetery (french: Cimetière de Picpus, ) is the largest private cemetery in Paris, France, located in the 12th arrondissement. It was created from land seized from the convent of the Chanoinesses de St-Augustin, during the French Revolu ...
in the impermeable ground.


Abolition of slavery

{{Main, Abolition of slavery Robespierre’s record on the issue of abolition, as well as that of other Montagnards, was ambiguous. The attitude of Robespierre on abolition has no shortage of contradictions and has raised doubts about his intentions supposed to slavery. It does not appear that he ever was a member of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks.H. Leuwers (2014) Robespierre, p. 178-179 On 7 May 1791, the National Constituent Assembly again addressed the question of the colonies. On 13 May 1791 he was opposed to the word "slaves" being included in a law; he denounced slave trade.Salim Lamrani, «Toussaint Louverture, In the Name of Dignity. A Look at the Trajectory of the Precursor of Independence of Haiti», Études caribéennes n línea 48 , Avril 2021, Publicado el 30 abril 2021, consultado el 19 octubre 2022. URL

DOI

/ref> He recalled that slavery was in contradiction with the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (french: Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789, links=no), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revol ...
. On 15 May 1791 the Constituent Assembly granted citizenship to " free people of colour, all people of colour born of free parents", although it left slavery untouched. Robespierre argued passionately in the Assembly against the Colonial Committee, dominated by plantation and slaveholders in the Caribbean. The colonial lobby declared that political rights for black people would cause France to lose her colonies. Robespierre responded, "We should not compromise the interests humanity holds most dear, the sacred rights of a significant number of our fellow citizens," later shouting, "Perish the colonies, if it will cost you your happiness, your glory, your freedom. Perish the colonies!"{{sfn, McPhee, 2012, pp=86–87 Robespierre was furious that the assembly gave "constitutional sanction to slavery in the colonies," and argued for equal political rights regardless of skin colour.{{cite book , title=The Oxford History of the French Revolution , last=Doyle , first=William , year=2002 , publisher=Oxford University Press , location=Oxford, UK , isbn=978-0-19-925298-5 The colonial whites refused to implement the decree. After this move the whites thought about separation from France. Robespierre did not argue for slavery's immediate abolition, but slavery advocates in France regarded Robespierre as a "bloodthirsty innovator" and a traitor plotting to give French colonies to England.{{sfn, McPhee, 2012, pp=86–87 On 4 April 1792, Louis XVI affirmed the Jacobin decree, granting equal political rights to free blacks and mulattoes in Saint-Domingue. On 2 June 1792, the French National Assembly appointed a three man Civil Commission, led by Léger Félicité Sonthonax, to go to Saint-Domingue and insure the enforcement of the April 4th decree, but eventually issued a proclamation of general emancipation that included black slaves. Robespierre denounced the slave trade in a speech before the Convention in April 1793. {{blockquote, Ask a merchant of human flesh what is property; he will answer by showing you that long coffin he calls a ship... Ask a gentleman he samewho has lands and vassals... and he will give you almost the identical ideas., Robespierre, "The Principles of Property", 24 April 1793.{{sfn, McPhee, 2012, pp=173–74{{sfn, Jordan, 2013 Babeuf called upon Chaumette to take the lead in convincing the Convention to accept the seven additional articles on the scale and scope of property rights which the Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre, in a speech to the Convention on 24 April 1793, had presented for incorporation into the new Declaration of Rights He attended a meeting of the Jacobin club on 3 June 1793 to support a decree ending slavery. On 4 June 1793, a delegation of sans-culottes and men of colour, led by Chaumette, presented to the convention a petition requesting the general freedom of the blacks in the colonies. On 6 July Marat was elected to the board of the colonial Convention.{{cite journal , first=Jean-Daniel , last=Piquet , title=Robespierre et la liberté des noirs en l'an II d'après les archives des comités et les papiers de la commission Courtois , journal=Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française , language=fr , volume=323 , date=2001 , issue=323 , pages=69–91 , access-date=1 October 2020 , url=http://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/1822 , doi=10.4000/ahrf.1822 The abolition of slavery was written into the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793.{{Cite web, url=http://serious-science.org/robespiere-6997, title=Maximilien Robespierre, website=Serious Science The radical 1793 constitution supported by Robespierre and the Montagnards, which was ratified in August by a national referendum, granted universal suffrage to French men and explicitly condemned slavery. However, the French Constitution of 1793 was never implemented. From August former slaves on St Domingue would enjoy 'all the rights of French citizens'. In August 1793, a growing group of slaves in St Domingue led a
Haitian revolution The Haitian Revolution (french: révolution haïtienne ; ht, revolisyon ayisyen) was a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolt began on ...
against slavery and colonial rule.{{sfn, McPhee, 2012, p=113 Robespierre defended the rights of free of color at the expense of the slaves. Sonthonax decreed the end of slavery in the north of Saint-Domingue (29 August 1793), as did Polverel shortly afterwards in the south and west. On 31 October 1793 slavery was completely abolished. On 17 November 1793, Robespierre insulted the people who denied the existence of the French republic, calling them imbeciles, the deputies from the Gironde pygmies. He criticized the former governor of Saint-Domingue Sonthonax and
Étienne Polverel Étienne Polverel (1740–1795) was a French lawyer, aristocrat, and revolutionary. He was a member of the Jacobin club. In 1792, he and Léger Félicité Sonthonax were sent to Saint-Domingue to suppress the slave revolt and to implement the de ...
, who had freed slaves on Haïti, but then proposed to arm them.{{sfn, Popkin, 2010, pp=350 Robespierre denounced the French minister to the newly formed United States,
Edmond-Charles Genêt Edmond-Charles Genêt (January 8, 1763July 14, 1834), also known as Citizen Genêt, was the French envoy to the United States appointed by the Girondins during the French Revolution. His actions on arriving in the United States led to a major po ...
, who had sided with Sonthonax, and informed the Committee not to count on the whites to manage the colony. To justify their decision Sonthorax and Polverel sent a committee to the Paris Convention made up of a white man called Dufay, a Freedman called Mills, and a black man by the name of
Jean-Baptiste Belley Jean-Baptiste Belley (c. July 1746 – 6 August 1805) was a Saint Dominican and French politician. A native of Senegal and former slave from Saint-Domingue, in the French West Indies, he was an elected member of the Estates General, the Na ...
, himself a former slave. By 1794, French debates concerning slavery reached their apogee. The discussions focused on the question if the colonies had to impose the same laws as in France. In late January, a small delegation of mixed colour, representing the slaveholders, their opponents, as well as a former slave arrived in France. After being briefly imprisoned, the member opposing slavery was freed on the orders of the Committee of Public Safety. The National Convention then passed a decree abolishing slavery in all the colonies and examine the behavior of Sonthonax and Polverel.{{sfn, Popkin, 2010, pp=366 {{blockquote, Slavery was abolished when the Saint-Domingue's deputies took their seats (3 February 1794). By confirming their election, the Convention implicitly confirmed the abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue. The day after, abolition was extended to all French colonies. The decree contemplated neither a transitional phase between slavery and freedom nor compensation for slave owners. This meant freedom was regarded as more important than property rights, delegitimizing slavery completely. On the day after the emancipation decree, Robespierre delivered a speech in the Convention arguing that terror and virtue were necessary. He praised the French as the first to "summon all men to equality and liberty, and their full rights as citizens," using the word slavery twice but without specifically mentioning the French colonies.{{sfn, Popkin, 2010, pp=350–70 Despite petitions from the slaveholding delegation, the Convention decided to endorse the decree in full. However, the decree was only implemented and applied in St Domingue (1793),
Guadeloupe Guadeloupe (; ; gcf, label= Antillean Creole, Gwadloup, ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands— Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and ...
(December 1794) and
French Guiana French Guiana ( or ; french: link=no, Guyane ; gcr, label= French Guianese Creole, Lagwiyann ) is an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France on the northern Atlantic coast of South America in the Guianas ...
. {{blockquote, The National Convention declares the abolition of negro slavery in all the Colonies; consequently it decrees that all men, without distinction of color, domiciled in the Colonies, are French citizens, and will enjoy all the rights assured by the constitution. The position of Robespierre on the decree of 16 pluviose year II (4 February 1794) relative to the emancipation of the slaves, has been controversial. According to Gorsas, the Incorruptible adopted in these circumstances, a low profile, and a few others. On 11 April 1794 the decree was changed. Robespierre signed orders to ratify the decree. The decree led to a surge in popularity for the Republic among Black people in St-Domingue, most of whom had already freed themselves and were seeking military alliances to guarantee their freedom. In May 1794
Toussaint Louverture François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda; 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture ...
joined the French after the Spanish refused to take steps to end slavery, and in repelling the English.


Cult of the Supreme Being

{{Main, Cult of the Supreme Being Robespierre's desire for revolutionary change was not limited only to the political realm. He also opposed the Catholic Church and the pope, particularly their policy of clerical celibacy.{{sfn, Scott, 1974, p=107 Having denounced the
Cult of Reason The Cult of Reason (french: Culte de la Raison) was France's first established state-sponsored atheistic religion, intended as a replacement for Roman Catholicism during the French Revolution. After holding sway for barely a year, in 1794 it ...
and other perceived excesses of
dechristianization The dechristianization of France during the French Revolution is a conventional description of the results of a number of separate policies conducted by various governments of France between the start of the French Revolution in 1789 and the Co ...
undertaken by political opponents in France, he sought to instill a spiritual resurgence across the nation predicated on Deist beliefs. On 6 May 1794 Robespierre announced to the Convention that in the name of the French people, the Committee of Public Safety had decided to recognize the existence of God and the
immortality Immortality is the concept of eternal life. Some modern species may possess biological immortality. Some scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that human immorta ...
of the human soul. Accordingly, on 7 May, Robespierre delivered a long presentation to the Convention ‘on the relation of religious and moral ideas to republican principles, and on national festivals’. He dedicated festivals to the Supreme Being, to Truth, Justice, Modesty, Friendship, Frugality, Fidelity, Immortality, Misfortune, etc., in a word, to all the moral and republican virtues. The
Cult of the Supreme Being The Cult of the Supreme Being (french: Culte de l'Être suprême) was a form of deism established in France by Maximilien Robespierre during the French Revolution. It was intended to become the state religion of the new French Republic and a re ...
was based on the creed of the Savoy chaplain that Jean-Jacques Rousseau had outlined in Book IV of '' Emile''. In the afternoon of 8 June (also the Christian holiday of Pentecost) a "Festival of the Supreme Being" was held. Everything was arranged to the exact specifications that had been drawn up previously set before the ceremony. The ominous and symbolic guillotine had been moved to the original standing place of the Bastille. Pregnant women and breastfeeding mothers with their babies were specifically invited to walk in the procession which started at the Tuileries.{{sfn , Moore , 2007 , p=291 ( Joachim Vilate had invited Robespierre to have lunch in the Pavillon de Flore, but he ate little.) The festival was also Robespierre's first appearance in the public eye as a leader for the people, and also as president of the Convention, to which he had been elected only four days earlier.{{sfn, Andress, 2006, p=308 Witnesses state that throughout the "Festival of the Supreme Being", Robespierre beamed with joy. He was able to speak of the things about which he was truly passionate, including virtue, nature, deist beliefs and his disagreements with atheism. He dressed elaborately, wearing feathers on his hat and holding fruit and flowers in his hands, and walked first in the festival procession. According to Michelet: "Robespierre, as usual, walked quickly, with an agitated air. The Convention did not move nearly so fast. The leaders, perhaps maliciously and out of perfidious deference, remained well behind him, thereby isolating him." The procession ended on the Champ de Mars. The Convention climbed to the summit, where a liberty tree had been planted.{{Efn, The choirs were composed by Étienne-Nicolas Méhul and François-Joseph Gossec, with lyrics from the obscure poet
Théodore Désorgues Théodore is the French version of the masculine given name Theodore. Given name * Théodore Caruelle d'Aligny (1798–1871), French landscape painter and engraver * Théodore Anne (1892–1917), French playwright, librettist, and novelist * Théo ...
. Robespierre delivered two speeches in which he emphasized his concept of a Supreme Being: there would be no
Christ Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label= Hebrew/ Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and relig ...
, no
Mohammed Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...
.
Is it not He whose immortal hand, engraving on the heart of man the code of justice and equality, has written there the death sentence of tyrants? Is it not He who, from the beginning of time, decreed for all the ages and for all peoples liberty, good faith, and justice? He did not create kings to devour the human race. He did not create priests to harness us, like vile animals, to the chariots of kings and to give to the world examples of baseness, pride, perfidy, avarice, debauchery and falsehood. He created the universe to proclaim His power. He created men to help each other, to love each other mutually, and to attain to happiness by the way of virtue.
Robespierre came down the mountain in a way that some claimed resembled Moses as the leader of the people. To offset his small stature (160 cm; {{nowrap, 5 ft 3 in), he wore elevated shoes. While for some it was exciting to see him at his finest, other deputies agreed that Robespierre had played too prominent a role. Someone was heard saying, "Look at the
blackguard Blackguard is an old-fashioned term for a scoundrel. Blackguard or Black Guard(s) may refer to: * Black Guard, a corps of Black African soldiers in Morocco * Black Guard (Brazil), a militia of former slaves intended to protect the monarchy * Bla ...
; it's not enough for him to be master, he has to be God". On 15 June, the president of the Committee of General Security, Vadier, on behalf of the two committees presented a report on a new conspiracy by
Catherine Théot Catherine Théot (born at Barenton (Normandy), France in 1716; died 1 September 1794) was a French visionary. Catherine believed she was destined to work for God. She gained notoriety when she was accused of being involved in a plot to overthrow ...
, Christophe Antoine Gerle and three others. He insinuated that Robespierre fitted her prophecies.{{sfn, Schama, 1989, p=840 His speech caused much laughter in the convention. Robespierre felt ridiculed and demanded on the 26th that the investigation of Théot be stopped and Fouquier-Tinville replaced.According to Madame de Staël, it was from that time he was lost. The deist
Cult of the Supreme Being The Cult of the Supreme Being (french: Culte de l'Être suprême) was a form of deism established in France by Maximilien Robespierre during the French Revolution. It was intended to become the state religion of the new French Republic and a re ...
that he had founded and zealously promoted generated suspicion in the eyes of both anticlericals and other
political factions A political faction is a group of individuals that share a common political purpose but differs in some respect to the rest of the entity. A faction within a group or political party may include fragmented sub-factions, "parties within a party," ...
, who felt he was developing grandiose delusions about his place in French society.Man of the people. Finding the real Robespierre by Patrice Higonnet
/ref>


Downfall

{{Further, Fall of Maximilien Robespierre On 20 May, Robespierre personally signed the warrant for the arrest of Tallien's lover, Theresa Cabarrus. On 23 May, Cécile Renault was arrested after having approached Robespierre's residence with two penknives and a change of underwear in her bag. She said the fresh linen was for her execution. She was executed together with three family members and 50 others on 17 June; Charles-Henri Sanson left the scaffold sick. Robespierre refused to reunite husbands, wives and children dispersed in different prisons in a common detention facility. He used this assassination attempt against him as a pretext for scapegoating the British.{{Cite journal, title=Robespierre, the Duke of York, and Pisistratus During the French Revolutionary Terror, first1=Simon, last1=Macdonald, first2=Colin, last2=Jones, date=25 September 2018, journal=The Historical Journal, volume=61, issue=3, pages=643–672, doi=10.1017/S0018246X17000267, doi-access=free On 10 June, the Law of 22 Prairial was introduced without consultation from the Committee of General Security, which deepened the conflict between the two committees. It doubled the number of executions in Paris; the so-called "Great Terror" had begun. Collot d'Herbois, Fouché and
Tallien Jean-Lambert Tallien (, 23 January 1767 – 16 November 1820) was a French politician of the revolutionary period. Though initially an active agent of the Reign of Terror, he eventually clashed with its leader, Maximilien Robespierre, and is b ...
feared for their lives, due to these excesses they had committed in various regions of France to stamp out opposition to the revolutionary government. Like Brissot, Madame Roland, Pétion, Hébert and Danton, Tallien was accused of organizing (or taking part in) conspicuous dinners. Almost all the deputies agreed it had become dangerous. On 11 June Robespierre attacked Fouché, accusing him of leading a conspiracy. On 12/13 June, finding himself in a minority, he withdrew, choked with rage and disappointment, swearing never to set foot again in the committee, so long as the conflict continued. On 21 June Robespierre attacked the journalists of the '' Moniteur Universel'': "I prohibit you from inserting my discourses in your papers till you have previously communicated them to me." On 24 June Carnot presciently dispatched a large part of the Parisian artillery to the front. Meanwhile, the Austrian Netherlands were almost entirely occupied by the French. At the end of June, Robespierre hastily recalled Saint-Just, who came to realise that Robespierre's political position had degraded significantly. For the second time, Carnot described Saint-Just and Robespierre as "ridiculous dictators". Carnot and
Cambon Cambon () is a commune in the Tarn department in southern France. See also *Communes of the Tarn department The following is a list of the 314 communes An intentional community is a voluntary residential community which is designed to ...
proposed to end the terror.


July 1794

On 1 July, Robespierre spoke in the Jacobin club: "In London, I am denounced to the French army as a dictator; the same slanders have been repeated in Paris." On 3 July he left a meeting of the Committee slamming the door and shouting "Then save the country without me". The next day he admitted: "As for me I have one foot in the tomb; in a few days the other will follow it." He attacked Tallien and had him excluded from the Jacobins on 11 July. On 14 July Robespierre had Fouché expelled. To evade arrest, which usually took place during the night, about fifty deputies avoided staying at home. (In early July, a group of 60 people, aged between 17 and 80 was arrested as " enemies of the people" and accused of conspiring against
liberty Liberty is the ability to do as one pleases, or a right or immunity enjoyed by prescription or by grant (i.e. privilege). It is a synonym for the word freedom. In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society fr ...
.) To escape the heat, he occasionally went to Maisons-Alfort, 12 km outside of Paris, and stayed on a farm owned by François-Pierre Deschamps, his courier. Robespierre walked through the fields or along the Marne. According to Vilate, Robespierre went for a 2-hour walk each day with his Danish dog, called ''Brount''. On 22 and 23 July, the two committees met in a plenary session. The Commune published a new maximum, limiting the wages of employees (in some cases halving them) which provoked a sharp protest in the sections. Almost all the workers in Paris went on strike. Saint-Just declared in negotiations with Barère that he was prepared to make concessions on the subordinate position of the Committee of General Security.{{sfn , Linton , 2013 Couthon proposed his resignation "rather than be suspected of taking part in measures" against his colleagues. He agreed to more cooperation between the two committees. For Robespierre, the Committee of General Security had to remain subordinate to the Committee of Public Safety. He wanted to take away the authority of the Committee of General Security, as the committees were acting as two governments.Discours prononcé par Robespierre à la Convention nationale, dans la séance du 8 Thermidor, de l'an II, p. 43.
/ref> The next day Robespierre was compared to Catiline; he himself preferred the virtues of Cato the Younger. Robespierre was obliged to commence the attack in the convention itself. He decided to make himself clear in a new report. On Saturday 26 July, Robespierre reappeared at the convention and delivered a two-hour-long speech on the villainous factions. Dressed in the same sky-blue coat and nankeen trousers which he had worn on the proclamation of the Supreme Being, he defended himself against charges of dictatorship and tyranny and then proceeded to warn of a conspiracy against the Committee of Public Safety. Calumny, he charged, had forced him to retire for a time from the Committee of Public Safety; he found himself the most unhappy of men. He gave the impression that no one was his friend, that no one could be trusted. He complained of being blamed for everything;{{sfn, Hampson, 1974, p=293 and that not only England but also members of the Committee of General Security were involved in intrigue to bring him down. (When he was interrupted, Robespierre accused Collot of limiting the freedom of speech.) Specifically, he railed against the bloody excesses he had observed during the Terror.{{sfn , Moore , 2007 , p=296 "I'm made to fight crime, not to govern it", he declared. He addressed the moderate party, by reminding them that they were indebted to him for the lives of the 73 Girondins. Intoxicated with his virtue,{{cite web , year=1896 , title=Memoirs by Joseph Fouché (1824) , url=https://archive.org/details/josephfoucheduke01fouciala Robespierre announced a new wave of purification. "Punish the traitors, purge the bureau of the Committee of General Security, purge the Committee itself, and subordinate it to the Committee of Public Safety, purge the Committee of Public Safety itself and create a unified government under the supreme authority of the Convention".{{sfn, Hampson, 1974, p=294 Fréron suggested to revoke the decree which gave the committee power to arrest the representatives of the people, but his motion to dissolve the two committees was rejected. When called upon to name those whom he accused, he simply refused. Joseph Cambon flew to the rostrum. "One man paralyzes the will of the National Convention". His vehemence changed the course of the debate. At length Lecointre of Versailles arose and proposed that the speech should be printed. This motion was the signal for agitation, discussion, and resistance. The Convention decided not to have the text printed, as Robespierre's speech had first to be submitted to the two committees. It contained matters sufficiently weighty that it needed to first be examined. Robespierre was surprised that his speech would be sent to the very deputies he had intended to sue. According to Couthon, not his speech, but the conspiracy had to be examined. In the evening, Robespierre delivered the same speech, which he regarded as his last will, at the Jacobin Club, where it was very well received.{{sfn, Schama, 1989, pp=841–42 "Who am I, whom they accuse? A slave of Liberty, a living martyr of the Republic, the victim as well as the enemy of crime." He spoke of drinking hemlock, and
David David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
, the painter, cried out: "I will drink it with you." Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne were driven out because of their opposition to the printing and distribution of the text. Billaud managed to escape before he was assaulted, but Collot d'Herbois was knocked down. They set off to the Committee of Public Safety, where they found Saint-Just working. They asked him if he was drawing up their bill of
indictment An indictment ( ) is a formal accusation that a person has committed a crime. In jurisdictions that use the concept of felonies, the most serious criminal offence is a felony; jurisdictions that do not use the felonies concept often use that ...
. Saint-Just promised to show them his speech before the session began.{{sfn, Hampson, 1974, p=298 Gathering in secret, nine members of the two committees decided that it was all or nothing; to protect themselves, Robespierre had to be arrested.
Barras Barras may refer to: Places * Barras, Cumbria, England * Barras, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France * Barras, Piauí, Brazil * Duas Barras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil * Sete Barras, São Paulo, Brazil Other uses * Barras (surname) * Barras (market ...
said they would all die if Robespierre did not die. According to Barère: "We never deceived ourselves that Saint-Just, cut out as a more dictatorial boss, would have ended up overthrowing him to put himself in his place; we also knew that we stood in the way of his projects and that he would have us guillotined; we had him stopped." (The Convention lost 144 delegates in 13 months; 67 were executed, committed suicide, or died in prison.) Now extremists and indulgents joined against him.
Laurent Lecointre Laurent Lecointre was a French politician, born at Versailles on 1 February 1742, and died at Guignes, Seine-et-Marne on 4 August 1805. He is also known under the name of "Lecointre de Versailles". Life Unlike almost all his colleagues of the Na ...
was the instigator of the coup,{{cite web, url=https://archive.org/details/robespierre00unse, title=Robespierre peint par lui-même, year=1794 assisted by Barère, Fréron,
Barras Barras may refer to: Places * Barras, Cumbria, England * Barras, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France * Barras, Piauí, Brazil * Duas Barras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil * Sete Barras, São Paulo, Brazil Other uses * Barras (surname) * Barras (market ...
,
Tallien Jean-Lambert Tallien (, 23 January 1767 – 16 November 1820) was a French politician of the revolutionary period. Though initially an active agent of the Reign of Terror, he eventually clashed with its leader, Maximilien Robespierre, and is b ...
, Thuriot, Courtois, Rovère, Garnier de l'Aube and Guffroy. (Fouché was no longer involved and had hidden.) Each one of them prepared his part in the attack. They decided that Hanriot, his aides-de-camp, Lavalette and Boulanger, the public prosecutor Dumas, the family Duplay and the printer Charles-Léopold Nicolas had to be arrested first, so Robespierre would be without support.


9 Thermidor

Around noon on Sunday 27 July, the weather was stormy. The workers of Paris organized a demonstration against the Maximum on wages. Saint-Just went straight to the convention, prepared to place blame on Billaud, Collot d'Herbois and Carnot. (Robespierre occupied a seat in front of the tribune.) He began: "I am from no faction; I will contend against them all." After a few minutes, Tallien — having a double reason for desiring Robespierre's end, as, on the evening before, Robespierre refused to release Theresa Cabarrus — interrupted him and began the attack. "Yesterday a member of the government was left quite isolated and made a speech in his own name; today another one has done the same thing. Need I recall to you that expression addressed to the journalists in one of the last sittings of the Jacobins?{{Efn, This session took place on 3 Messidor (21 June). Duke of York and Albany in command of the British contingent in West Flanders destined for the invasion of France had accused Robespierre of being the King of France and Navarre and that he was surrounded by a military guard. On a proposal of Barère the account was not distributed among the soldiers in the armies. Lebas attempted to speak in defence of the triumvirs; he was not allowed to do so, and Billaud continued. "Yesterday, the president of the revolutionary tribunal umasopenly proposed to the Jacobins that they should drive all impure men from the Convention." Billaud-Varennes complained about how he was treated in the Jacobin club on the evening before and that Saint-Just had not kept his promise to show them his speech before the meeting. Since March, they had organized a spy system among the representatives in the Convention whom they wanted to destroy. He better stop talking about justice and virtue. Tallien would use his dagger if Robespierre was not arrested. Tallien demanded the arrest of Dumas, Hanriot and Boulanger. According to Barère, the committees asked themselves why there still existed a military regime in Paris; why all these permanent commanders, with staffs, and immense armed forces? The committees have thought it best to restore to the National Guard its democratic organization. Almost thirty-five deputies spoke against Robespierre that day, most of them from the Mountain. As the accusations began to pile up, Saint-Just remained silent. Robespierre rushed toward the rostrum, appealed to the Plain to defend him against the Montagnards, but his voice was shouted down. Robespierre rushed to the benches of the Left but someone cried: "Get away from here; Condorcet used to sit here". He soon found himself at a loss for words after Vadier gave a mocking impression of him referring to the discovery of a letter under the mattress of the illiterate Catherine Théot.{{efn, On 9 Thermidor Vadier used a letter—supposedly found under the mattress of Théot—as an opportunity to attack Robespierre and his beliefs.{{sfn, Andress, 2006, p=323 This letter announced to him that his mission had been prophesied in Ezekiel, that the re-establishment of religion, freed of priests, was owing to him. By stating that Robespierre was the "herald of the Last Days, the prophet of the New Dawn"{{sfn, Andress, 2006, p=323 (because his festival had fallen on the Pentecost, traditionally a day revealing "divine manifestation"), Catherine Théot made it seem that Robespierre had made these claims himself, to her. She also claimed that he was a reincarnation of Saul, the saviour of Israel, and the chosen of God. Vadier becoming increasingly trivial was stopped by Tallien. Robespierre foamed at the mouth, and his utterance was choked. When Garnier witnessed his inability to respond, he shouted, "The blood of Danton chokes him!"{{sfn, Schama, 1989, pp=842–44 Robespierre then finally regained his voice to reply with his one recorded statement of the morning, a demand to know why he was now being blamed for the other man's death: "Is it Danton you regret? ... Cowards! Why didn't you defend him?" At some time Louis Louchet called for Robespierre's arrest; Robespierre the Younger demanded to share his fate. The whole Convention agreed, including the two other members of the triumvirate, Couthon, and Saint-Just. Le Bas decided to join Saint-Just. Robespierre shouted that the revolution was lost when he descended the tribune. The five deputies were taken to the Committee of General Security and questioned. Not long after, Hanriot was ordered to appear in the convention; he or someone else suggested to show up only accompanied by a crowd. (Dumas was already arrested at noon and at four o'clock taken to
Sainte-Pélagie Prison Sainte-Pélagie was a prison in Paris, in active use from 1790 to 1899. It was founded earlier than that, however, in 1662, as place for "repentant girls" and later "debauched women and girls." The former Parisian prison was located between the ...
, as well as members of the family Duplay.) (The story about
Marie Thérèse de Choiseul Marie Thérèse ''Françoise'' de Choiseul (8 December 1766 – 27 July 1794) was a French noblewoman and a Monegasque princess, married to Prince Joseph of Monaco in 1782. Life She was the daughter of Jacques Philippe de Choiseul, Duke of Sta ...
who would be one of the last guillotined in the afternoon, is not well known.) On horseback, Hanriot warned the sections that there would be an attempt to murder Robespierre, and mobilized 2,400 National Guards in front of the town hall.{{sfn, Furet, 1996, p=150 What had happened was not very clear to their officers; either the convention was closed down or the Paris Commune. Nobody explained anything.{{Cite book, url=http://archive.org/details/memoirsofsansons02sansuoft, title=Memoirs of the Sansons: From Private Notes and Documents (1688–1847), last=Sanson, first=Henri, date=1876, publisher=Chatto and Windus, location=London, oclc=317736774 Around six o'clock the city council summoned an immediate meeting to consider the dangers threatening the fatherland. It gave orders to close the gates and to ring the tocsin. For the convention, that was an illegal action without the permission of the two committees. It was decreed that anyone leading an "armed force" against the convention would be regarded as an outlaw. The city council was in league with the Jacobins to bring off an insurrection, asking them to send over reinforcements from the galleries, 'even the women who are regulars there'.


Arrest

In the early evening, the five deputies were taken in a cab to different prisons; Robespierre to the Palais du Luxembourg, Couthon to "La Bourbe" and Saint-Just to the "Écossais". Augustin was taken from
Prison Saint-Lazare Saint-Lazare Prison was a prison in the 10th arrondissement of Paris, France. History Originally a leprosarium was founded on the road from Paris to Saint-Denis at the boundary of the marshy area of the former River Seine bank in the 12th ce ...
to La Force Prison, like Le Bas who was refused at the
Conciergerie The Conciergerie () ( en, Lodge) is a former courthouse and prison in Paris, France, located on the west of the Île de la Cité, below the Palais de Justice. It was originally part of the former royal palace, the Palais de la Cité, which also ...
.{{Cite journal, url=http://journals.openedition.org/lrf/1591, title=Les journées de Prairial an II : le tournant de la Révolution ?, first=Annie, last=Jourdan, date=2 May 2016, journal=La Révolution française. Cahiers de l'Institut d'histoire de la Révolution française, issue=10, via=journals.openedition.org, doi=10.4000/lrf.1591{{cite book, last=Biard, first=Michel, title=La liberté ou la mort, mourir en député, 1792–1795, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7hSCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119, date=2015, publisher=Tallandier, isbn=979-1-02-100844-1, page=119 Around 8 p.m., Hanriot appeared at the Place du Carrousel in front of the convention with 40 armed men on horses, but was taken prisoner. After 9 p.m., the vice-president of the Tribunal Coffinhal went to the Committee of General Security with 3,000 men and their artillery. As Robespierre and his allies had been taken to a prison in the meantime, he succeeded only in freeing Hanriot and his adjutants. How the five deputies escaped from prison was disputed. According to Le Moniteur Universel, the jailers refused to follow the order of arrest, taken by the convention. According to Courtois and Fouquier-Tinville, the police administration was responsible for any in custody or release. Nothing could be done without an order of the mayor. Escorted by two municipals, Robespierre the younger was the first to arrive at the town hall.{{Cite journal, title=The Overthrow of Maximilien Robespierre and the "Indifference" of the People, first=Colin, last=Jones, date=1 June 2014, journal=The American Historical Review, volume=119, issue=3, pages=689–713, doi=10.1093/ahr/119.3.689 An administrator of the police took Robespierre the older around 8 p.m. to the police administration on Île de la Cité as Robespierre refused to go to the town hall and insisted on being received in a prison. He hesitated for legal reasons for possibly two hours. At around 10 p.m., the mayor sent a second delegation to go and convince Robespierre to join the Commune movement. Robespierre was taken to the town hall. At around 11 p.m., Saint-Just was delivered, after which LeBas and Dumas were brought in. (Couthon arrived as the last one in the town hall, but after midnight.) The Convention declared the five deputies (plus the supporting members) to be outlaws. It then appointed
Barras Barras may refer to: Places * Barras, Cumbria, England * Barras, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France * Barras, Piauí, Brazil * Duas Barras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil * Sete Barras, São Paulo, Brazil Other uses * Barras (surname) * Barras (market ...
and ordered troops (4,000 men) to be called out. After a whole evening spent waiting in vain for action by the Commune, losing time in fruitless deliberation, without supplies or instructions, the armed sections began to disperse. According to Colin Jones, apathy prevailed, with most of them drifting back to their homes. A widely repeated account claims that heavy rain dispersed Robespierre's supporters but detailed metrological records from the nearby Paris ''Observatoire'' show that conditions were warm and dry that night. Around 400 men from three sections seem to have stayed on the Place de Grève, according to Courtois.{{cite book, last=Sydenham, first=Michael J., title=Léonard Bourdon: The Career of a Revolutionary, 1754–1807, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vkk9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA241, date=1 January 2006, publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, isbn=978-0-88920-588-8, page=241 At around 2 a.m., Barras and Bourdon, accompanied by several members of the convention, arrived in two columns. Barras deliberately advanced slowly, in the hope of avoiding conflict by a display of force.Richard T. Bienvenu (1968) The Ninth of Thermidor, p. 225 Then Grenadiers burst into the Hôtel de Ville; 51 insurgents were gathering on the first floor. Robespierre and his allies had withdrawn to the smaller "secrétariat".{{cite book, last=Méda, first=Charles-André, title=Précis historique inédit des événemens de la soirée du 9 Thermidor An II, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZ4PAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA394, year=1825, publisher=Baudouin, page=394 There are many stories about what happened next, but it seems in order to avoid capture, Augustin Robespierre took off his shoes and jumped from a broad cornice. He landed on some bayonets and a citizen, resulting in a pelvic fracture, several serious head contusions, and in an alarming state of "weakness and anxiety". LeBas killed himself with a pistol, handing another to Robespierre. According to Barras and Courtois, Robespierre wounded himself when he tried to commit suicide by pointing the pistol at his mouth, but the gendarme Méda prevented this. (This change in orientation might explain how Robespierre, sitting in a chair, got wounded from the upper right in the lower left jaw.{{efn, A coloured print but with a different caption on this cold case can be seen here.) According to Bourdon, Méda then hit Couthon's adjutant in his leg.{{sfn, Brink, 1899, p=399 Couthon was found lying at the bottom of a staircase in a corner, having fallen from the back of his gendarme. The unperturbed Saint-Just gave himself up without a word. According to Méda, Hanriot tried to escape by a concealed staircase to the third floor and his apartment. Most sources say that Hanriot was thrown out of a window by Coffinhal after being accused of the disaster. (According to Ernest Hamel, it is one of the many legends spread by Barère.) Whatever the case, Hanriot landed in a small courtyard on a heap of glass. He had strength enough to crawl into a drain where he was found twelve hours later and taken to the Conciergerie. Coffinhal, who had successfully escaped, was arrested seven days later, totally exhausted.


Execution

The wounded Robespierre spent the remainder of the night at the
antechamber A vestibule (also anteroom, antechamber, or foyer) is a small room leading into a larger space such as a lobby, entrance hall or passage, for the purpose of waiting, withholding the larger space view, reducing heat loss, providing storage space ...
of the Committee of General Security. He lay on the table, his head on a deal (pine) box, his shirt covered in blood. At 5 a.m. his brother and Couthon seem to have been taken to the nearest hospital, Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, to see a doctor. Barras did not allow Robespierre to be sent there too; the circumstances did not permit it. At ten in the morning according to Sanson a military doctor was invited and removed some of his teeth and fragments of his broken jaw. Robespierre was then placed in the cell in the
Conciergerie The Conciergerie () ( en, Lodge) is a former courthouse and prison in Paris, France, located on the west of the Île de la Cité, below the Palais de Justice. It was originally part of the former royal palace, the Palais de la Cité, which also ...
in which Danton had slept while detained. On 10 Thermidor (a décadi, a day of rest and festivity) around 12.30 the Revolutionary Tribunal gathered. Verifying their identity Fouquier-Tinville had to solve a problem as 13 of them were members of the insurrectionary Commune. Around 2 a.m. Robespierre and 21 "Robespierrists" were accused of counter-revolution and condemned to death by the rules of the law of 22 Prairial. Around 6 p.m., the convicts, whose average age was 34, were taken in three carts to the Place de la Révolution to be executed along with the cobbler
Antoine Simon Antoine Simon (1736 – 28 July 1794) was a shoemaker at Rue des Cordeliers in Paris and a member of the Club of the Cordeliers, representative of the Paris Commune. He was born in Troyes, France to François Simon and Marie-Jeanne Adenet. On 3 ...
, the jailer of the Dauphin. A mob screaming curses followed them right up to the scaffold. His face still swollen, Robespierre kept his eyes closed throughout the procession. He was the tenth called to the platform and ascended the steps of the scaffold unassisted. When clearing Robespierre's neck, executioner Charles-Henri Sanson tore off the bandage that was holding his shattered jaw in place, causing him to produce an agonised scream until the fall of the blade silenced him.{{sfn, Schama, 1989, pp=845–46 Sanson's grandson wrote that while his grandfather did this carefully, Robespierre nevertheless roared like a tiger in response. After he was beheaded, applause and joyous cries arose from the crowd and reportedly persisted for fifteen minutes.{{sfn, Israel, 2014, p=580 Robespierre and associates were later buried in a common grave at the newly opened Errancis Cemetery near what is now the Place Prosper-Goubaux.{{efn, {{in lang, fr}
Landrucimetieres.fr
A plaque indicating the former site of this cemetery is located at 97 rue de Monceau, Paris. Between 1844 and 1859 (probably in 1848), the remains of all those buried there were moved to the Catacombs of Paris.


Legacy and memory

{{Main, Thermidorian Reaction Robespierre is best known for his role as a member of the Committee of Public Safety as he signed 542 arrests, especially in the spring and summer of 1794. He exerted his influence to suppress the republican
Girondins The Girondins ( , ), or Girondists, were members of a loosely knit political faction during the French Revolution. From 1791 to 1793, the Girondins were active in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. Together with the Montagnard ...
to the right, the radical Hébertists to the left and then the indulgent Dantonists in the centre. Though nominally all members of the committee were equally responsible, the
Thermidorians The Thermidorians (french: Thermidoriens, named after the month of Thermidor), known also a Thermidorian Convention (french: Convention thermidorienne) was a French political group active during the French Revolution between 1794 and 1799. His ...
held Robespierre as the most culpable for the bloodshed. The day after his death, Bertrand Barère, a prominent member of the Plain, an opportunist who cooperated in the tyranny, described him as "the Terror itself". On that day about half of the Paris Commune (70 members) were sent to the guillotine; meanwhile 35 sections congratulated the convention, some marched through the hall. On Thuriot's proposal, the Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended and replaced by a temporary commission. On 30 July Courtois took in custody Robespierre's books by Corneille, Voltaire, Rousseau, Mably, Locke, Bacon, Pope, articles by Addison and Steele in ''
The Spectator ''The Spectator'' is a weekly British magazine on politics, culture, and current affairs. It was first published in July 1828, making it the oldest surviving weekly magazine in the world. It is owned by Frederick Barclay, who also owns ''Th ...
'', an English and Italian dictionary, an English grammar, and the Bible. Nothing about Richard Price or
Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley (; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist. He published over 150 works, and conducted ...
who had influenced Condorcet, Mirabeau, Clavière and Brissot so much.{{cite journal , first=Annie , last=Jourdan , title=L'épuisement de Robespierre , language=fr , journal=La Vie des idées , date=23 July 2012 , issn=2105-3030 , url=http://www.laviedesidees.fr/L-epuisement-de-Robespierre.html On 1 August the Law of 22 Prairial was abolished; Fouquier-Tinville was arrested and not long after
solicitors A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor and ...
were reintroduced in the courtroom. Between 6 and 20 August, Napoleon was put under house arrest in Nice because of his connections with Robespierre the younger. Mid August Courtois was appointed by the convention to collect evidence against Robespierre, Le Bas and Saint-Just, whose report has a poor reputation, selecting and destroying papers. At the end of the month, Tallien stated that all that the country had just been through was the "Terror" and that the "monster" Robespierre, the "king" of the Revolution, was the orchestrator. According to
Charles Barbaroux Charles Jean Marie Barbaroux (6 March 1767 – 25 June 1794) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period and Freemason. Biography Early career Born in Marseille, Barbaroux was educated at first by the local Oratorians, then studied l ...
, who visited him early August 1792, his pretty
boudoir A boudoir (; ) is a woman's private sitting room or salon in a furnished residence, usually between the dining room and the bedroom, but can also refer to a woman's private bedroom. The term derives from the French verb ''bouder'' (to sulk ...
was full of images of himself in every form and art; a painting, a drawing, a bust, a
relief Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
and six physionotraces on the tables. The eyewitness
Helen Maria Williams Helen Maria Williams (17 June 1759 – 15 December 1827) was a British novelist, poet, and translator of French-language works. A religious dissenter, she was a supporter of abolitionism and of the ideals of the French Revolution; she was impri ...
who worked as a translator in Paris, attributed all the grim events to his hypocrisy and cunning. She described him as the great conspirator against the liberty of France; she mentioned the forced enthusiasm required from the participants of the Festival of the Supreme Being. For Lazare Carnot: "this monster was above all a hypocrite; it is because he knew how to seduce the people." For Samuel Coleridge, one of the authors of '' The Fall of Robespierre'' he was worse than
Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell (25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English politician and military officer who is widely regarded as one of the most important statesmen in English history. He came to prominence during the 1639 to 1651 Wars of the Three ...
. In fact, a whole new political mythology was being created.{{sfn, Israel, 2014, p=586 To preach the ideals of '93 after Thermidor was to expose oneself to suspicions of Robespierrism, suspicions which had to be avoided above all others. Two contrasting legends around Robespierre developed: a critical one that held Robespierre as an irresponsible, self-serving figure whose ambitions generated widespread calamity, and a supportive one that held him as an early friend of the proletariat, about to embark on economic revolution when he fell. Robespierre's reputation has experienced several cycles of re-appraisal. His name peaked in the press in the middle of the 19th century, between 1880–1910 and in 1940. The laborious
Buchez Philippe-Joseph-Benjamin Buchez (1796–1865), more commonly called Philippe Buchez, was a French historian, sociologist, and politician. He was the founder of the newspaper ''L'Atelier'', and he served briefly, in 1848, as the president of the ...
, a democratic mystic, was producing volumes (forty in all) in which the Incorruptible rose up as the Messiah and sacrificial being of the Revolution. For Jules Michelet, he was the "priest Robespierre" and for Alphonse Aulard Maximilien was a " bigot monomaniac" and "mystic assassin". For Mary Duclaux he was the "apostle of Unity" and Saint-Just a prophet.{{blockquote, Robespierre did not thunder like Danton or scream like Marat. But his clear, shrill voice enunciated calmly syllables that the ears of his listeners retained forever. And it is owned that, in this as in other things, Robespierre had a strange provision of the future; as a thinker at least, as a seer, he made few mistakes. His reputation peaked in the 1920s, during the
Third French Republic The French Third Republic (french: Troisième République, sometimes written as ) was the system of government adopted in France from 4 September 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed during the Franco-Prussian War, until 10 July 194 ...
when the influential French historian Albert Mathiez rejected the common view of Robespierre as demagogic, dictatorial, and fanatical. Mathiez argued he was an eloquent spokesman for the poor and oppressed, an enemy of royalist intrigues, a vigilant adversary of dishonest and corrupt politicians, a guardian of the
First French Republic In the history of France, the First Republic (french: Première République), sometimes referred to in historiography as Revolutionary France, and officially the French Republic (french: République française), was founded on 21 September 1792 ...
, an intrepid leader of the French Revolutionary government, and a prophet of a socially responsible state. François Crouzet collected many interesting details from French historians dealing with Robespierre. According to Marcel Gauchet Robespierre confused his private opinion and virtue.{{citation needed, date=June 2020 By making himself the embodiment of virtue and of total commitment, Robespierre took control of the Revolution in its most radical and bloody phase: the Jacobin republic. His goal in the Terror was to use the guillotine to create what he called a "republic of virtue", wherein virtue would be combined with terror.
Robespierre's main ideal was to ensure the virtue and sovereignty of the people. He disapproved of any acts which could be seen as exposing the nation to counter-revolutionaries and traitors and became increasingly fearful of the defeat of the Revolution. He instigated the Terror and the deaths of his peers as a measure of ensuring the Republic of Virtue but his ideals went beyond the needs and want of the people of France. He became a threat to what he had wanted to ensure and the result was his downfall.{{sfn, Scurr, 2006
Lenin referred to Robespierre as a "
Bolshevik The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
'' avant la lettre''" (before the term was coined) and erected the Robespierre Monument to him in 1918.{{sfn, Mathiez, 1920, page=3{{sfn, Jordan, 2013, p=2 The Voskresenskaya Embankment in St. Petersburg was renamed ''Naberezhnaya Robespera'' in 1923 but returned to its original name in 2014. In 1941
Marc Bloch Marc Léopold Benjamin Bloch (; ; 6 July 1886 – 16 June 1944) was a French historian. He was a founding member of the Annales School of French social history. Bloch specialised in medieval history and published widely on Medieval France ...
, a French historian, sighed disillusioned (a year before he decided to join the
French Resistance The French Resistance (french: La Résistance) was a collection of organisations that fought the German occupation of France during World War II, Nazi occupation of France and the Collaborationism, collaborationist Vichy France, Vichy régim ...
): "Robespierrists, anti-robespierrists ... for pity's sake, just tell us who was Robespierre?" According to R.R. Palmer: the easiest way to justify Robespierre is to represent the other Revolutionists in an unfavourable or disgraceful light. This was the method used by Robespierre himself. Soboul argues that Robespierre and Saint-Just "were too preoccupied in defeating the interest of the bourgeoisie to give their total support to the sans-culottes, and yet too attentive to the needs of the sans-culottes to get support from the middle class."{{sfn, Ishay, 1995, p=65 For Peter McPhee, Robespierre's achievements were monumental, but so was the tragedy of his final weeks of indecision. The members of the committee, together with members of the Committee of General Security, were as much responsible for the running of the Terror as Robespierre."{{sfn , Linton , 2013 , p=229 They may have exaggerated his role to downplay their own contribution and used him as a scapegoat after his death.{{sfn, Serna, 2005, p=369 J-C. Martin and McPhee interpret the repression of the revolutionary government as a response to anarchy and popular violence, and not as the assertion of a precise ideology. Martin keeps
Tallien Jean-Lambert Tallien (, 23 January 1767 – 16 November 1820) was a French politician of the revolutionary period. Though initially an active agent of the Reign of Terror, he eventually clashed with its leader, Maximilien Robespierre, and is b ...
responsible for Robespierre's bad reputation, and that the "
Thermidorians The Thermidorians (french: Thermidoriens, named after the month of Thermidor), known also a Thermidorian Convention (french: Convention thermidorienne) was a French political group active during the French Revolution between 1794 and 1799. His ...
" invented the "Terror" as there is no law that proves its introduction. Many historians neglected Robespierre's attitude towards the French National Guard from July 1789, and as " public accuser", responsible for the officers within the police till April 1792. He then began promoting civilian armament and the creation of a revolutionary army of 23,000 men in his periodical.{{Efn, In those days an issue as the
2nd United States Congress The 2nd United States Congress, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from March 4, 1791, to March 4, 1793, during the third and fourth year ...
enacted Militia Acts of 1792 for the organization of state militias and the conscription of every "free able-bodied white male citizen" between the ages of 18 and 45. He defended the right of revolution and promoted a revolutionary armed force. Dubois-Crancé described Robespierre as the general of the Sansculottes. Lazare Carnot who took charge of the military situation became the enemy of Saint-Just in the Committee of Public Safety and reversed several measures. Also, Barère changed his mind; the voluntary Guards and militant Sans-culottes lost influence quickly in Spring 1794. The revisionist historian Furet thought that Terror was inherent in the ideology of the French Revolution and was not just a violent episode. Equally important is his conclusion that revolutionary violence is connected with extreme voluntarism. Furet was especially critical of the "Marxist line" of Albert Soboul. {{blockquote, Robespierre fell ill many times: in the spring of 1790, in November 1792 (more than three weeks); in September–October 1793 (two weeks); in February/March 1794 (more than a month); in April/May (about three weeks) and in June/July (more than three weeks). These illnesses not only explain Robespierre's repeated absences from committees and from the Convention during important periods, especially in 1794 when the Great Terror occurred but also the fact that his faculty of judgment deteriorated – as did his moods. Peter McPhee stated on several previous occasions Robespierre had admitted that he was worn out; his personal and tactical judgment, once so acute, seems to have deserted him. The assassination attempts made him suspicious to the point of obsession. There is a long line of historians "who blame Robespierre for all the less attractive episodes of the Revolution." Jonathan Israel is sharply critical of Robespierre for repudiating the true values of the radical Enlightenment. He argues, "Jacobin ideology and culture under Robespierre was an obsessive Rousseauiste moral Puritanism steeped in authoritarianism, anti-intellectualism, and xenophobia, and it repudiated free expression, basic human rights, and democracy."{{sfn, Israel, 2014, p=521 He refers to the Girondin deputies
Thomas Paine Thomas Paine (born Thomas Pain; – In the contemporary record as noted by Conway, Paine's birth date is given as January 29, 1736–37. Common practice was to use a dash or a slash to separate the old-style year from the new-style year. In th ...
, Condorcet, Daunou, Cloots, Destutt and Abbé Gregoire denouncing Robespierre's ruthlessness, hypocrisy, dishonesty, lust for power and intellectual mediocrity.The Enlightenment that Failed: Ideas, Revolution, and Democratic Defeat ...by Jonathan I. Israel, 482
/ref> According to Hillary Mantel: He could not survive if he trusted nobody, and could not work out who to trust. Georges Lefebvre believed Robespierre to be a "staunch defender of democracy, a determined opponent of foreign war, saviour of the Republic and man of integrity and vision." However the Marxist approach that portrayed him as a hero has largely faded away.
Zhu Xueqin Zhu Xueqin (born 1952) is a Shanghai-based Chinese historian and public intellectual. He is a major exponent of contemporary Chinese liberalism. Background Born in Shanghai, Zhu was shaped in his eventual outlook by China's Cultural Revolut ...
became famous by and large due to his 1994 book titled ''The Demise of the Republic of Virtue: From Rousseau to Robespierre.'' This work has attracted countless readers since its publication and is still being read in the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
today. For Aldous Huxley "Robespierre achieved the most superficial kind of revolution, the political." "Robespierre remains as controversial as ever, two centuries after his death."


Screen portrayals

Over 300 commercial films in French and English have portrayed Robespierre's roles. Prominent examples include: * Sidney Herbert portrayed Robespierre in '' Orphans of the Storm'' (1921) * Werner Krauss portrayed Robespierre in '' Danton'' (1921) *
Edmond Van Daële Edmond Van Daële (11 August 1884, in Paris – 11 March 1960, in Grez-Neuville, Maine-et-Loire, France) was a Dutch- French film actor. Born as Edmond Jean Adolphe Minckwitz, he appeared in the 1923 silent film '' Coeur fidèle'', directed by ...
portrayed Robespierre in ''
Napoléon Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
'' (1927) * George Hackathorne portrayed Robespierre in '' Captain of the Guard'' (1930) * Ernest Milton portrayed Robespierre in '' The Scarlet Pimpernel'' (1934) * Henry Oscar portrayed Robespierre in '' The Return of the Scarlet Pimpernel'' (1937) * Leonard Penn portrayed Robespierre in ''
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette Josèphe Jeanne (; ; née Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last queen of France before the French Revolution. She was born an archduchess of Austria, and was the penultimate child a ...
'' (1938) * Richard Basehart portrayed Robespierre in ''
Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror (french: link=no, la Terreur) was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the First French Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and numerous public Capital punishment, executions took pl ...
'' (1949) * Keith Anderson portrayed Robespierre in the Doctor Who episode, '' The Reign of Terror'' (1964) * Peter Gilmore as a character referred to only as "Citizen Robespierre" in '' Don't Lose Your Head'', a Carry On spoof of ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' (1967) *
Christopher Ellison Christopher Michael Ellison (born 16 December 1946 in St Pancras, London) is an English actor. He is best known for his role as DCI Frank Burnside in the ITV police series ''The Bill'' and short-lived spin-off series '' Burnside''. Education ...
portrayed Robespierre in '' Lady Oscar'' (1979) * Richard Morant portrayed Robespierre in '' The Scarlet Pimpernel'' (1982) * Wojciech Pszoniak portrayed Robespierre in '' Danton'' (1983) * Andrzej Seweryn portrayed Robespierre in '' La Révolution française'' (1989) * Ronan Vibert portrayed Robespierre in '' The Scarlet Pimpernel'' (1999–2000) * Guillaume Aretos portrayed Robespierre in '' Mr. Peabody & Sherman'' (2014) *
Nicolas Vaude Nicolas Vaude (born 24 July 1962) is a French actor An actor or actress is a person who portrays a character in a performance. The actor performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of the theatre or in modern media such as film, rad ...
portrayed Robespierre in '' The Visitors: Bastille Day'' (2016) * Louis Garrel portrayed Robespierre in '' One Nation, One King'' (2018)


Public memorials


Street names

Robespierre is one of the few revolutionaries not to have a street named for him in the center of Paris. At the liberation, the municipal council (elected on 29 April 1945 with 27 communists, 12 socialists and 4 radicals out of 48 members), decided on 13 April 1946, to rename the Place du Marché-Saint-Honoré 'Place Robespierre', a decision approved at the prefectorial level on 8 June. However, in the wake of political changes in 1947, it reverted to its original name on 6 November 1950. Streets in the so-called 'Red belt' bear his name, e.g. at Montreuil. There is also a Metro station 'Robespierre' on Line 9 (Mairie de Montreuil – Pont de Sèvres), in the commune of Montreuil, named during the era of the Popular Front. There are, however, numerous streets, roads, and squares named for him elsewhere in France.


Plaques and monuments

The Soviet Union built two statues of him: one in Leningrad and another in Moscow (the Robespierre Monument). The monument was commissioned by
Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov. ( 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin,. was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1 ...
, who referred to Robespierre as a Bolshevik before his time.{{sfn, Jordan, 2013 Due to the poor construction of the monument (it was made of tubes and common concrete), it crumbled within three days of its unveiling and was never replaced.{{sfn, Bean, Horak, Kapse, 2014 The Robespierre Embankment in Saint-Petersburg across Kresty prison is now called Voskresenskaya Embankment.


= Arras

= * On 14 October 1923, a plaque was placed on the house at 9 Rue Maximilien Robespierre (formerly Rue des Rapporteurs) rented by the three Robespierre siblings in 1787–1789, in the presence of the mayor Gustave Lemelle, Albert Mathiez and Louis Jacob. Built in 1730, the house has had a varied history as a typing school, and a craftsmen's museum, but is now being developed as a Robespierre Museum. * In 1994, a plaque was unveiled by ARBR on the façade of the Carrauts' brewery on the Rue Ronville, where Maximilien and Augustin were brought up by their grandparents. * An
Art Deco Art Deco, short for the French ''Arts Décoratifs'', and sometimes just called Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture, and product design, that first appeared in France in the 1910s (just before World War I), and flourished in the Unit ...
marble bust by Maurice Cladel was intended to be displayed in the gardens of the former
Abbey of Saint-Vaast The Abbey of St Vaast (french: Abbaye de Saint-Vaast) was a Benedictine monastery situated in Arras, ''département'' of Pas-de-Calais, France. History The abbey was founded in 667. Saint Vedast, or Vaast (c. 453–540) was the first Bishop ...
. A mixture of politics and concerns about weathering led to it being placed in the Hôtel de Ville. After many years in a tribunal room, it can now be seen in the Salle Robespierre. Bronze casts of the bust were made for the bicentenary and are displayed in his former home on Rue Maximilien Robespierre and at the Lycée Robespierre, unveiled in 1990.


= Paris and elsewhere

= * Robespierre is commemorated by two plaques in Paris, one on the exterior of the Duplays' house, now 398 rue Saint-Honoré, the other, erected by the Société des études robespierristes in the
Conciergerie The Conciergerie () ( en, Lodge) is a former courthouse and prison in Paris, France, located on the west of the Île de la Cité, below the Palais de Justice. It was originally part of the former royal palace, the Palais de la Cité, which also ...
. * In 1909, a committee presided over by René Viviani and Georges Clemenceau proposed erecting a statue in the garden of the Tuileries, but press hostility and failure to garner enough public subscriptions led to its abandonment. However, Robespierre is recognisable in
François-Léon Sicard François-Léon Sicard (April 21, 1862 – July 8, 1934) was a French sculptor in the late 19th and early 20th century. His credits include work on the adornments of the Louvre, and numerous sculptures around the world. Sicard was born in Tours, ...
's marble Altar of the
National Convention The National Convention (french: link=no, Convention nationale) was the parliament of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for the rest of its existence during the French Revolution, following the two-year Nation ...
(1913), originally intended for the gardens of the Tuileries and now in the Panthéon. * A stone bust by Albert Séraphin (1949) stands in the square Robespierre, opposite the theatre in Saint-Denis, with the inscription: "Maximilien Robespierre l'Incorruptible 1758–1794". * Charles Correia's 1980s bronze sculptural group at the Collège Robespierre in Épinay-sur-Seine depicts him and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just at a table, working on the 1793 Constitution and Declaration of Human Rights. A mural in the school also depicts him. * In 1986, Claude-André Deseine's terracotta bust of 1791 was bought for the new Musée de la Révolution française at
Vizille Vizille (; frp, Veselye) is a commune in the Isère department in southeastern France. Population Sights Vizille is the home of the Musée de la Révolution française, a rich depository of archival and rare materials devoted to the French R ...
. This returned to public view Robespierre's only surviving contemporary sculpted portrait. A plaster cast of it is displayed at the Conciergerie in Paris, and a bronze cast is in the Place de la Révolution Française in
Montpellier Montpellier (, , ; oc, Montpelhièr ) is a city in southern France near the Mediterranean Sea. One of the largest urban centres in the region of Occitania, Montpellier is the prefecture of the department of Hérault. In 2018, 290,053 people l ...
, with bronzes of other figures of the time.


Resistance units

In the Second World War, several
French Resistance The French Resistance (french: La Résistance) was a collection of organisations that fought the German occupation of France during World War II, Nazi occupation of France and the Collaborationism, collaborationist Vichy France, Vichy régim ...
groups took his name: the Robespierre Company in Pau, commanded by Lieutenant Aurin, alias Maréchal; the Robespierre Battalion in the
Rhône The Rhône ( , ; wae, Rotten ; frp, Rôno ; oc, Ròse ) is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and southeastern France before discharging into the Mediterranean Sea. At Ar ...
, under Captain Laplace; and a
maquis Maquis may refer to: Resistance groups * Maquis (World War II), predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance * Spanish Maquis, guerrillas who fought against Francoist Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War * The netwo ...
formed by Marcel Claeys in the Ain.


Notes

{{notelist


References

{{reflist


Sources (selection)

{{refbegin, 30em * {{cite book , last1=Andress , first1=David , title=The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France , date=2006 , publisher=Farrar, Straus, and Giroux , isbn=978-0-374-27341-5 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zDfxQDcQzJ0C , language=en * Aulard, François-Alphonse (1897). La société des Jacobins: Mars à novembre 1794. Recueil de documents pour l'histoire du club des Jacobins de Paris (in French). 6. Librairie Jouaust. OCLC 763671875 * Bienvenu, Richard T. (1968) The Ninth of Thermidor: The Fall of Robespierre. Oxford University Press, New York. * Blanc, Louis Jean Joseph (1869). Histoire de la Révolution française. Libr. Internationale. * {{cite book , last1=Courtois , first1=Edme-Bonaventure , last2=Robespierre , first2=Maximilien , title=Papiers inédits trouvés chez Robespierre, Saint-Just, Payan, etc: supprimés ou omis par Courtois; précédés du rapport de ce député à la Convention nationale; avec un grand nombre de fac-similé et les signatures des principaux personnages de la révolution , publisher=Baudouin frères , date=1828 , url=https://archive.org/details/papiersinditstr02courgoog , language=fr * Davidson, Ian (2016) The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny. Profile Books Ltd * {{cite book , last1=Doyle , first1=William , title=The Oxford History of the French Revolution , date=2002 , publisher=Oxford University Press , isbn=978-0-19-160829-2 , url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryoff00doyl , language=en * Dunoyer, Alphonse (1913) The public prosecutor of the terror, Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville. New York: G.P. Putnam's sons. * {{cite book , last1=Furet , first1=François , title=Interpreting the French Revolution , year=1989 , publisher=Harvard University Press , location=Cambridge, MA , isbn=978-0-521-28049-5 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLFxhlSHNDYC , access-date=26 January 2014 * {{cite book , last1=Furet , first1=François , last2=Ozouf , first2=Mona , title=A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution , date=1989 , publisher=Harvard University Press , isbn=978-0-674-17728-4 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGxiE6jvzOcC , language=en * Hamel, Ernest (1897) Thermidor: d'après les sources originales et les documents authentiques (in French) (2nd ed.). Flammarion. OCLC 764094902 * {{cite book , last1=Hampson , first1=Norman , title=The Life and Opinions of Maximilien Robespierre , date=1974 , publisher=Duckworth , isbn=978-0-7156-0741-1 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edpnAAAAMAAJ , language=en * Hardman, John (1999) Robespierre. Profiles in power. Longman. {{ISBN, 9780582437555 – via Google Books. * {{cite book , last1=Haydon , first1=Colin , last2=Doyle , first2=William , title=Robespierre , date=2006 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-02605-5 , url=https://books.google.com/books?d=VM5hh2Ssde0C , language=en A collection of essays covering not only Robespierre's thoughts and deeds, but also the way he has been portrayed by historians and fictional writers alike. ** {{cite web , url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n07/mant01_.html , title=Reviewed , access-date=31 August 2006 , archive-date=9 June 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609194601/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n07/mant01_.html , url-status=bot: unknown by
Hilary Mantel Dame Hilary Mary Mantel ( ; born Thompson; 6 July 1952 – 22 September 2022) was a British writer whose work includes historical fiction, personal memoirs and short stories. Her first published novel, '' Every Day Is Mother's Day'', was relea ...
in the '' London Review of Books'', Vol. 22, No. 7, p. 30 March 2000. * Hazan, Eric (2014) A People's History of the French Revolution. Verso. London. New York. {{ISBN, 978-1781689844 * {{cite book , last1=Israel , first1=Jonathan , title=Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History of the French Revolution from The Rights of Man to Robespierre , date=2014 , publisher=
Princeton University Press Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University. Its mission is to disseminate scholarship within academia and society at large. The press was founded by Whitney Darrow, with the financial ...
, isbn=978-1-4008-4999-4 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpIpAgAAQBAJ , language=en * {{cite book , last1=Jordan , first1=David P. , title=Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre , date=2013 , publisher=
Simon & Schuster Simon & Schuster () is an American publishing company and a subsidiary of Paramount Global. It was founded in New York City on January 2, 1924 by Richard L. Simon and M. Lincoln Schuster. As of 2016, Simon & Schuster was the third largest publi ...
, isbn=978-1-4767-2571-0 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SArAQAAQBAJ , language=en * {{cite book , last1=Kennedy , first1=Michael L. , title=The Jacobin clubs in the French Revolution: the Middle Years , date=1988 , publisher=Princeton University Press , isbn=978-0-691-05526-8 * {{cite book , title=Oeuvres Completes de Robespierre , last=Laurent , first=Gustave , language=fr , year=1939 , publisher=Imprimerie de G. Thomas , location=Nancy , oclc=459859442 * Leuwers, Hervé (2014) Robespierre. Paris, Pluriel.
Lewes, G.H. (1849) The life of Robespierre
* {{cite book , last=Linton , first=Marisa , title=Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship, and Authenticity in the French Revolution , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sh2vu4mIOh4C , year=2013 , publisher=Oxford University Press , isbn=978-0-19-957630-2 , oclc=854998068 * {{cite book , last1=Martin , first1=Jean-Clément , title=Violence et Révolution: essai sur la naissance d'un mythe national , date=2006 , publisher=Éd. du Seuil , location=Paris , isbn=978-2020438421 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMPEfYtjpZEC , language=fr * {{cite book , last1=Mathiez , first1=Albert , title=The French Revolution , date=1927 , publisher=Williams and Norgate , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxSDvgAACAAJ , language=en * {{cite journal , last=Mathiez , first=Albert , date=1977 , title=Robespierre: l'histoire et la légende , jstor=41915887 , journal=Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française , volume=49 , issue=227 , pages=5–31 , doi=10.3406/ahrf.1977.4029 * {{cite book , last1=Mathiez , first1=Albert , title=Études sur Robespierre: 1758–1794 , date=1988 , publisher=Messidor , location=Paris , isbn=978-2209060498 * {{cite book , last1=Matrat , first1=Jean , title=Robespierre: or, The tyranny of the majority , date=1975 , publisher=Scribner , location=New York , isbn=978-0-684-14055-1 , url=https://archive.org/details/robespierreortyr0000matr * {{cite book , last1=McPhee , first1=Peter , title=Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life , date=2012 , publisher=
Yale University Press Yale University Press is the university press of Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day, and became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and operationally autonomous. , Yale Univers ...
, isbn=978-0-300-11811-7 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYLu7-cPJTYC , language=en * McPhee, Peter. "The Robespierre Problem: An Introduction," ''H-France Salon'', Vol 7 no, 14, 2015, page 9
online
* Michelet, Jules (1847) The History of the French Revolution (Charles Cocks, trans.) online * Mignet, François (1826) History of the French Revolution, from 1789 to 1814: Volume 1. Hunt and Clarke, Tavistock Street, Covent Garde

* {{cite book , last=Moore , first=Lucy , title=Liberty: The Lives and Times of Six Women in Revolutionary France , url=https://archive.org/details/libertylivestime0000moor , url-access=registration , date=8 May 2007 , publisher=HarperCollins , isbn=978-0-06-082526-3 , oclc=76836264 * {{cite book , last1=Robespierre , first1=Charlotte , title=Mémoires , date=2006 , publisher=Nouveau monde éd. , location=Paris , isbn=978-2847361766 , edition=Nouv. éd. * {{cite book , last=Robespierre , first=Maximilien de , editor1-last=Bouloiseau , editor1-first=Marc , editor2-last=Lefebvre , editor2-first=Georges , editor3-last=Soboul , editor3-first=Albert , editor4-last=Dautry , editor4-first=Jean , title=Oeuvres de Maximilien Robespierre , date=1958 , publisher=PUF , language=fr , oclc=370022395 , url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvrescomplte09robeuoft * {{cite book , last1=Rudé , first1=George F.E. , title=Robespierre: portrait of a Revolutionary Democrat , date=1975 , publisher=Collins , isbn=978-0-00-216708-6 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xDAJAQAAIAAJ , language=en A political portrait of Robespierre, examining his changing image among historians and the different aspects of Robespierre as an 'ideologue', as a political democrat, as a social democrat, as a practitioner of revolution, as a politician and as a popular leader/leader of revolution. * {{cite book , author-link=Simon Schama , last=Schama , first=Simon , title=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution , location=New York , publisher=Alfred A. Knopf , year=1989 , isbn=978-0-394-55948-3 , title-link=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution * {{cite book , last1=Scurr , first1=Ruth , title=Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution , date=2006 , publisher=Macmillan , location=New York , isbn=978-0-8050-8261-6 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CojtKDmS_ocC&q=Fatal+Purity+2006 , language=en ** {{cite web , url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n08/print/mant01_.html , title=Reviewed , access-date=21 April 2006 , archive-date=9 June 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609051033/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n08/print/mant01_.html , url-status=bot: unknown by Hilary Mantel in the ''London Review of Books'', Vol. 28 No. 8, 20 April 2006. *
Reviewed
by Sudhir Hazareesingh in ''
The Times Literary Supplement ''The Times Literary Supplement'' (''TLS'') is a weekly literary review published in London by News UK, a subsidiary of News Corp. History The ''TLS'' first appeared in 1902 as a supplement to ''The Times'' but became a separate publication ...
'', 7 June 2006. * Sanson, Henri (1876). Memoirs of the Sansons: From Private Notes and Documents (1688–1847). London: Chatto and Windus. OCLC 317736774 * {{cite book , last1=Soboul , first1=Albert , title=Dictionnaire historique de la Révolution française , date=2005 , publisher=Quadrige / PUF , location=Paris , isbn=978-2130536055 , edition=1. éd. * {{cite book , last1=Soboul , first1=Albert , title=The French Revolution, 1787–1799: from the storming of the Bastille to Napoleon , date=1974 , publisher=Vintage Books , isbn=978-0-394-71220-8 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2gt4AAAAIAAJ , language=en * {{cite book , last1=Thompson , first1=J.M. , title=Robespierre , date=1988 , publisher=B. Blackwell , location=New York , isbn=978-0-631-15504-1 * {{cite book , last1=Popkin , first1=Jeremy D. , title=You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery , date=2010 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-51722-5 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U8IHym0hoQwC , language=en {{refend


Further reading

According to David P. Jordan: "Any comprehensive bibliography would be virtually impossible. In 1936 Gérard Walter drew up a list of over 10,000 works on Robespierre, and much has been done since." {{refbegin, 30em
The French Revolution of 1789: As Viewed in the Light of Republican Institutions
by John Stevens Cabot Abbott * Andress, David. "Living the Revolutionary Melodrama: Robespierre's Sensibility and the Construction of Political Commitment in the French Revolution." ''Representations'' 114#1 2011, pp. 103–128
online
* Belissa, Marc, and Julien Louvrier. "Robespierre in French and English language publications since 2000." {{lang, fr, Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française, no. 1, pp. 73–93. Armand Colin, 2013. * Benigno, Francesco. "Never the Same Again: On Some Recent Interpretations of the French Revolution." {{lang, fr, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales: ''English Edition'' 71.2 (2016): 189–21

*
Richard Cobb Richard Charles Cobb (20 May 1917 – 15 January 1996) was a British historian and essayist, and professor at the University of Oxford. He was the author of numerous influential works about the history of France, particularly the French R ...
, {{lang, fr, Les armées révolutionnaires. Instrument de la Terreur dans les départements. Avril 1793-Floréal An II, Paris-La Haye, Mouton and C°, 1961–1963, 2 volumes in-8°, VIII–1017
présentation en ligneprésentation en ligne
* Cobban, Alfred. "The Political Ideas of Maximilien Robespierre during the Period of the Convention", ''English Historical Review'' Vol. 61, No. 239 (January 1946), pp. 45–80 {{JSTOR, 554837 * Cobban, Alfred. "The Fundamental Ideas of Robespierre", ''English Historical Review'' Vol. 63, No. 246 (1948), pp. 29–51 {{JSTOR, 555187 * Dicus, Andrew. "Terror and Self-Evidence: Robespierre and the General Will." ''European Romantic Review'' 31.2 (2020): 199–218. * {{cite book , author=Eagan, James Michael , title=Maximilien Robespierre: Nationalist Dictator , location=New York , publisher=Octagon Books , year=1978 , isbn=978-0-374-92440-9 Presents Robespierre as the origin of Fascist dictators. * Hodges, Donald Clark (2003) ''Deep Republicanism: Prelude to Professionalism''. Lexington Books. * Jones, Colin. "The overthrow of Maximilien Robespierre and the "indifference" of the people." ''American Historical Review'' 119.3 (2014): 689–713.
Koekkoek, René (2020) The Citizenship Experiment Contesting the Limits of Civic Equality and Participation in the Age of Revolutions. Studies in the History of Political Thought
* Linton, Marisa. "Robespierre and the Terror", ''History Today'', August 2006, Volume 56, Issue 8, pp. 23–29 {{cite web , url=http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=31771&aid=&tgid=&amid=30232604&g31771=x&g31763=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x , title=online , access-date=29 August 2006 , archive-date=13 March 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313181009/http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=31771&aid=&tgid=&amid=30232604&g31771=x&g31763=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x , url-status=bot: unknown * Linton, Marisa. "The choices of Maximilien Robespierre." ''H-France Salon'' 7.14 (2015
online
* Linton, Marisa, 'Robespierre et l'authenticité révolutionnaire', {{lang, fr, Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française, 371 (janvier-mars 2013): 153–73. * {{cite journal , last=McPhee , first=P. , date=2013 , title="My Strength and My Health Are not Great Enough": Political Crises and Medical Crises in the Life of Maximilien Robespierre, 1790–1794 , journal=Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française , volume=371 , pages=137–152, doi=10.4000/ahrf.12695 * {{cite book , author=Palmer, R.R. , title=Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of Terror in the French Revolution , publisher=Princeton University Press , year=1941 , isbn=978-0-691-05119-2 , author-link=R.R. Palmer A sympathetic study of the Committee of Public Safety. * Parry, Albert. ''Terrorism: from Robespierre to the weather underground. '' Courier, 2013). * Poirot, Thibaut. "Robespierre and War, a question posed as early as 1789?." {{lang, fr, Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française, no. 1, pp. 115–135. Armand Colin, 2013. * Popkin, Jeremy D. ''A New World Begins: The History of the French Revolution'' (2018) * {{cite book , last1=Robespierre , first1=Maximilien , last2=Žižek , first2=Slavoj , editor1-last=Ducange , editor1-first=Jean , translator-last1=Howe , translator-first1=John , date=2017 , title=Virtue and Terror , publisher=Verso , series=Revolutions , isbn=978-1-78663-337-8 , author-link2=Slavoj Žižek * Rudé, George. "Robespierre"''History Today'' (Apr 1958) 8#4 pp 221–229. * Scott, Otto. ''Robespierre: The Voice of Virtue'' (Routledge, 2017). * Sepinwall, Alyssa Goldstein. "Robespierre, Old Regime Feminist? Gender, the Late Eighteenth Century, and the French Revolution Revisited." ''Journal of Modern History'' 82#1 2010, pp. 1–29
online
* Shusterman, Noah C. "All of His Power Lies in the Distaff: Robespierre, Women and the French Revolution." ''Past & Present'' 223.1 (2014): 129–160. * Smyth, Jonathan. ''Robespierre and the Festival of the Supreme Being: The search for a republican morality'' (Manchester UP, 2016). * Soboul, Albert. "Robespierre and the Popular Movement of 1793–4", ''Past and Present'', No. 5. (May 1954), pp. 54–70. {{JSTOR, 649823 * Turner, Michael J. "Revolutionary Connection: 'The Incorruptible' Maximilian Robespierre and the 'Schoolmaster of Chartism' Bronterre O'Brien." ''The Historian'' 75.2 (2013): 237–261. {{refend


External links

{{Commons category, Maximilien de Robespierre {{Wikisource, Author:Maximilien Robespierre {{Wikiquote, Maximilien Robespierre * {{Internet Archive author , sname=Maximilien Robespierre *
La Révolution française (film) ''La Révolution française'' is a two-part 1989 historical film co-produced by France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and Canada for the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution. The full film runs at 360 minutes, but the edited-fo ...
by Richard T. Heffron (1989 dramatisation reflecting the official narrative of the Bicentenary commemorations, based on the view point of François Furet, rejecting a Marxist interpretation):
The French Revolution — Part 2 — English subtitles
In reaction a "more balanced" picture is presented by:
Biography: essential elements of his life

Conspiracy and Terror in the French Revolution – Marisa Linton (Kingston University) Public Lecture

The Robespierre Problem – Peter McPhee (University of Melbourne) and Colin Jones (University of London) discussion

Robespierre, l'homme qui nous divise le plus. Podcast (52 min.) France culture; Marcel Gauchet and Jean-Clément Martin on 27/10/2018

Jean-Clément Martin Robespierre. La fabrication d'un monstre

Le Grand Méchant Robespierre – Marc Bélissa and Yannick Bosc – discussion in French, dissecting the creation of the ''légende noire''
with subtitles. See als
The Enlightenment that Failed: Ideas, Revolution, and Democratic Defeat ...by Jonathan I. Israel, 482

Hervé Leuwers (University of Lille) on Robespierre (French)
with subtitles {{French Revolution navbox {{Authority control {{DEFAULTSORT:Robespierre, Maximilien 1758 births 1794 deaths 18th-century French male writers 18th-century French lawyers 18th-century French writers 18th-century jurists Anti-monarchists Artesian people Critics of atheism Critics of the Catholic Church Cultural critics Deputies to the French National Convention Executed revolutionaries French deists French jurists French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution French republicans French revolutionaries French shooting survivors Jacobins Leaders ousted by a coup Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Montagnards People from Arras People of the Reign of Terror People on the Committee of Public Safety Political philosophers Presidents of the National Convention Regicides of Louis XVI French radicals French social commentators Social critics Social philosophers Politicide perpetrators