Romanian lexis

The lexis of the Romanian language (or Daco-Romanian), a Romance language, has changed over the centuries as the language evolved from Vulgar Latin, to Common Romanian, to medieval, modern and contemporary Romanian. A large proportion (about 42%) of present-day Romanian lexis is not inherited from Latin and in some semantic areas loanwords far outnumber inherited ones making Romanian an example of a language with a high degree of lexical permeability.

Thraco-Dacian substrate

Romanian has around 90 words from Thraco-Dacian.

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Latin

Romanian has inherited about 2000 Latin words through Vulgar Latin, sometimes referred to as Danubian Latin in this context, that form the essential part of the lexis and without them communication would not be possible. 500 of these words are found in all other Romance languages, and they include prepositions and conjunctions (ex: ), numerals (ex: ), pronouns (ex: ), adjectives, adverbs and verbs with multiple meanings (ex: ). Complete phrases can be built using only inherited Latin words.

Of the remaining words some are common to Romanian and only one other Romance language, such as ''înțelege'' "to understand" also found in Romansh (Lat. ''intelligere''), ''trece'' "to pass" found in Occitan (Lat. ''traicere''), or ''sui'' "to climb up" found in Old Spanish (Lat. ''subire''), and around 100 of these words are not found in any other Romance languages. Some examples of the latter are:

''adăpost, ager, agest, apuca, armar, asuda, așterne, cântec, ceață, cerceta, creștin, dezmierda, feri, ferice, flămând, ierta, întâi, județ, lânced, lângoare, legăna, leșina, lingură, mărgea, negustor, oaie, ospăț, plăcintă, plăsa, plimba, purcede, puroi, putred, sănătoare (sunătoare), suoară (subsoară), treaptă, trepăda, urca, vânăt, vătăma, veșted, urî.''

Of the words preserved in other Romance languages some have not only changed their shape, but also their meaning during their evolution from Latin to Romanian. Such are:

* ''bărbat'' "man" (< Latin ''barbātus'' "bearded")
* ''ceață'' "fog" (< Latin ''caecia'' "blindness")
* ''femeie'' "woman" (< Latin ''familia'' "people belonging to a household")
* ''inimă'' "heart" (< Latin ''anima'' "soul")
* ''soț'' and ''soție'' "husband" and "wife" (< Latin ''socius'' "fellow")

Pre-Modern loanwords

Slavic loanwords

(see also Slavic influence on Romanian)

Contact with Slavic languages has brought numerous loanwords (about 15% of the current lexis) that permeated all the semantic fields of the language. It also brought prefixes (''ne-, pre-, răs-'') and suffixes (''-an,-eț, -iște''), introduced new sounds (for example j like in ''jar'' from Old Church Slavonic ''žarŭ''), calques (''limbă'' with initial meaning of tongue, language gained the additional sense of people, after Old Church Slavonic ''językŭ''- tongue, language, people) adverbs and interjections (''da, ba, iată''). The influence of the Slavic languages on Romanian forms the adstratum of the language.

Among the basic Slavic loanwords are:

ceas ''clock'', citi ''to read'', covaci ''blacksmith'', crai ''king'', curvă ''whore'', da ''yes'', drag ''dear'', dragoste ''love'', duh ''spirit, ghost'',
haină ''shirt'', iubi ''to love'', izvor ''source'', mândru ''proud'', muncă ''work'', noroc ''luck'', opri ''stop'', porni ''start'',
praf ''dust'', prieten ''friend'', prost ''stupid; simple'', rând ''row; order'', sărac ''poor'', sfânt ''holy'', sfert ''quarter''
slănină ''bacon'', smântână ''sour cream'', sută ''hundred'', târg ''market'', tigaie ''pan'', trup ''body'', veac ''century'',
vreme ''weather; time'', zid ''wall''.

Slavic languages also mediated the entry of Medieval Greek words in the language. Out of 278 words of Greek origin before 15th century 2 were borrowed through Medieval Latin, 22 directly, and 254 through South Slavic languages. Slavic loanwords represent about 9% of the basic vocabulary.

Greek loanwords

From the Latin spoken in the Danube area, Romanian has inherited a number of words from Ancient Greek that did not get transmitted in other Romance languages, for example: ''cir, ciumă, frică, jur, papură, părângă, plai, spân, sterp, stup''.

From Medieval Greek words like ''folos, lipsi, părăsi, prisos, sosi'' entered the language.

During the Phanariot Period, Romanian, in particular the southern subdialects, borrowed numerous words like ''argat'',
''crivăț'', ''chivernisi'' that have since gone out of use, while others, like ''stafidă'' for example, have remained part of the vocabulary. According to linguist László Gáldi only about 10% of the words loaned during this period remained in use in the language.

Some of the Greek words in Romanian can be recognise by the ''-isi'' (''-asi, -esi, -osi, -arisi'') (ex: chivernisi, fandosi),'' -os, -icos'' (plicticos, politicos), ''-adă'', or ''-ache'' (in particular with names for example Costache, Manolache).

Hungarian loanwords

Hungarian loanwords are notably absent from the other 3 Eastern Romance languages.

Words of Hungarian origin have entered the basic vocabulary and represent 1.27% of this category.

Some examples of Hungarian loanwords in Romanian are:
* ''acaț'' "black locust" (from Hungarian ''akác'')
* ''ademeni'' "to lure, to seduce" (from Hungarian ''adomány'')
* ''alcătui'' "to create, to form, to make" (from Hungarian ''alkotni'')
* ''altoi'' "to graft" (from Hungarian ''oltani'')
* ''belșug'' "abundance" (from Hungarian ''bőség'')
* ''birui'' "to overcome, to subdue" (from Hungarian ''bírni'')
* ''bănui'' "to suspect" (from Hungarian ''bánni'')
* ''bântui'' "to haunt" (from Hungarian ''bántani'')
* ''cheltui'' "to spend" (from Hungarian ''költeni'')
* ''chin'' "pain" (from Hungarian ''kín'')
* ''chip'' "face, image" (from Hungarian ''kép'')
* ''ciopor'' "group" (from Hungarian ''csoport'')
* ''covaci'' "blacksmith" (from Hungarian ''kovács'')
* ''dâmb'' "small hill" (from Hungarian ''domb'')
* ''făgădui'' "to promise, to pledge" (from Hungarian ''fogadni'')
* ''gând'' "thought, care" (from Hungarian ''gond'')
* ''hotar'' "border" (from Hungarian ''határ'')
* ''ic'' "wedge" (from Hungarian ''ék'')
* ''iobag'' "serf" (from Hungarian ''jobbágy'')
* ''jale'' "sage" (from Hungarian ''zsálya'')
* ''fel'' "sort, type, kind" (from Hungarian ''féle'')
* ''labă'' "palm, paw" (from Hungarian ''láb'')
* ''lacăt'' "padlock" (from Hungarian ''lakat'')
* ''locui'' "to dwell" (from Hungarian ''lakni'')
* ''mai'' "liver" (from Hungarian ''máj'')
* ''marfă'' "goods" (from Hungarian ''marha'')
* ''neam'' "family, kin, ancestry, nation" (from Hungarian ''nem'')
* ''nemeș'' "landowner" (from Hungarian ''nemes'')
* ''oraș'' "city" (from Hungarian ''város'')
* ''pa'' "bye" (from Hungarian ''pá'')
* ''panglică'' "ribbon, hatband" (from Hungarian ''pántlika'')
* ''seamă'' "account" (from Hungarian ''szám'')
*''servus'' "salute" (from Hungarian ''szervusz'')
* ''sicriu'' "coffin" (from Hungarian ''szekrény'')
* ''sobă'' "room" (from Hungarian ''szoba'')
* ''șoim'' "falcon" (from Hungarian ''sólyom'')
* ''șuvoi'' "stream, current, torrent" (from Hungarian ''sió'')
* ''tobă'' "drum" (from Hungarian ''dob'')
* ''tobă'' "holder, case" (from Hungarian ''tok'')
* ''uliu'' "buzzard, goshawk" (from Hungarian ''ölyv'')
* ''vaida'' "voivode" (from Hungarian ''vajda'')
* ''vamă'' "custom, toll" (from Hungarian ''vám'')
* ''zăbală'' "bit (for a horse)" (from Hungarian ''zabola'')

Food and beverage words of Hungarian origin:

* ''doboș'' " dobos" (from Hungarian ''dobos'')
* ''gulaș'' "goulash" (from Hungarian ''gulyás'')
* ''pălincă'' " palinka" (from Hungarian ''pálinka'')
* ''papricaș'' " paprika stew" (from Hungarian ''paprikás'')

Turkish loanwords

Large parts of modern-day Romania were under Ottoman suzerainty for several centuries. As a result, exchanges in language, food and culture occurred, and Romanian has absorbed several loanwords of Turkish origin. Even though Turkish language had an influence on the Romanian language, only a few loanwords remain used today on a daily basis. Dobrogea region was part of Rumelia for centuries, as a result there exists a Turkish community there. Ada Kaleh was a small island located in Banat region on Danube river that was inhabited entirely by Turkish people from all parts of the Ottoman Empire who mostly produced Turkish goods for the region.

Examples of Turkish loanwords in Romanian language are:

* ''aba'' "a type of garment" (< Turkish ''aba'')
* ''abanos'' "ebony" (< Turkish ''abanoz'')
* ''abitir'' "more" (< Turkish ''beter "''worse''"'')
* ''aga'' "military officer" (< Turkish ''ağa "''landlord, chief, master''"'')
* ''alai'' "group of people" (< Turkish ''alay'')
* ''arnăut'' "mercenary" (< Turkish ''arnavud'')
* ''arpagic'' "chive" (< Turkish ''arpacık'')
* ''arșic'' "bone of the leg joint" (< Turkish ''așık'')
* ''bacșiș'' "tip, gratuity" (< Turkish ''bahşiş'')
* ''basma'' "kerchief" (< Turkish ''basma'')
* ''batal'' "wether" (< Turkish ''batal,'' "useless" rchaic
* ''băbalac'' "old early" (< Turkish ''babalık'')
* ''băcan'' "merchant" (< Turkish ''bakkal "grocery store")''
* ''bairam'' "big party" (< Turkish ''bayram "''celebrative day''"'')
* ''baltag'' "ax" (< Turkish ''balta'')
* ''barbut'' "gambling" (< Turkish ''barbut,'' a type of gambling game referred as craps in English)
* ''bașca'' "different" (< Turkish ''başka'')
* ''basma'' "handkerchief" (< Turkish ''basma'')
* ''beci'' "cellar" (< Turkish ''beç bscure')
* ''bei'' "governor" (< Turkish ''bey'')
* ''belea'' "misfortune" (< Turkish ''bela'')
* ''beizadea'' "son of gentle" (< Turkish ''beyzade'')
* ''boi'' "to paint" (< Turkish ''boya'')
* ''bre'' "hey" (< Turkish ''bre'')
* ''briceag'' "pocket knife" (< Turkish ''bıçak'')
* ''buluc'' "pile" (< Turkish ''bölük "''division''"'')
* ''burghiu'' "drill" (< Turkish ''burgu'')
* ''bursuc'' "badger" (< Turkish ''porsuk'')
* ''buzdugan'' "iron rod" (< Turkish ''bozdoğan'')
* ''cabazlâc'' "joke" (< Turkish ''kabazlık'')
* ''cacealma'' "trick" (< Turkish ''kaçırma'')
* ''cadână'' "lady" (< Turkish ''kadın "''woman''"'')
* ''calcană'' "turbot" (< Turkish ''kalkan balığı'')
* ''caldarâm'' "pavement" (< Turkish ''kaldırım'')
* ''cântar'' "weighing" (< Turkish ''kantar'')
* ''capcană'' "trap" (< Turkish ''kapkan,'' a variation of ''kapan'')
* ''caraghios'' "funny" (< Turkish '' Karagöz'')
* ''cat'' "storey" (< Turkish ''kat'')
* ''capac'' "cork" (< Turkish ''kapak'' "lid")
* ''cazan'' "metal" (< Turkish ''kazan'' "cauldron")
* ''cearșaf'' "sheet" (< Turkish ''çarşaf'')
* ''chef'' "big party" (< Turkish ''keyif'')
* ''cherem'' "stay" (fez" (< Turkish ''fes'')
* ''fildeș'' "tusk" (< Turkish ''fildişi'')
* ''fitil'' "suppository" (< Turkish ''fitil'')
* ''furtun'' "hose" (< Turkish ''hortum'')
* ''geantă'' "smaller bag" (< Turkish ''çanta'')
* ''geam'' "window" (< Turkish ''cam'')
* ''get-beget'' "from ancestor to ancestor" (< Turkish ''ğedd bi ğedd'')
* ''ghiveci'' "pot" (< Turkish ''güvec'')
* ''habar'' "idea" (< Turkish ''haber'' "news")
* ''haide/hai'' "come on" (< Turkish ''haydi'')
* ''haiduc'' "hajduk" (< Turkish ''haydut'')
* ''haimana'' "stray" (< Turkish ''haymana'')
* ''hal'' "bad condition" (< Turkish ''hâl'' "state, situation")
* ''hamal'' "carrier, portet" (< Turkish ''hammal'')
* ''hamam'' "bath" (< Turkish ''hamam'')
* ''harem'' "the cauldrons" (< Turkish ''harem'')
* ''hașiș'' "hashish" (< Turkish ''haşiş'')
* ''hatâr'' "service" (< Turkish ''hatır'')
* ''hazna'' "reservoir" (< Turkish ''hazne'')
* ''ibric'' " ibrik" (< Turkish ''ibrik'')
* ''imam'' "reciter in prayer" (< Turkish ''imam'')
* ''iorgovan'' "lilac" (< Turkish ''erguvan'')
* ''iureș'' "impetuous" (< Turkish ''yürügüş'')
* ''lighean'' "basin" (< Turkish ''liğen'')
* ''macara'' " crane" (< Turkish ''makara'')
* ''mahmur'' "sleepy" (< Turkish ''mahmur'')
* ''maimuță'' "monkey" (< Turkish ''maymun'')
* ''moft'' "whim" (< Turkish ''müft'')
* ''moșmodi'' "slow" (< Turkish ''muşmula'')
* ''murdar'' "dirty" (< Turkish ''murdar'')
* ''musafir'' "guest" (< Turkish ''misāfir'')
* ''mușteriu'' "client" (< Turkish ''müşteri'')
* ''năframă'' "cloth" (< Turkish ''mahrama'')
* ''nai'' "flute" (< Turkish '' ney'')
* ''narghilea'' "hookah" (< Turkish ''nargile'')
* ''nur'' "glory" (< Turkish ''nur'' "light")
* ''oca'' "unit of measure" (< Turkish ''okka'')
* ''pafta'' "threader" (< Turkish ''pafta'')
* ''pașă'' "high titled" (< Turkish ''paşa'')
* ''pașalâc'' "despotic rule" (< Turkish ''paşalik'')
* ''patalama'' "diploma" (< Turkish ''batalama'')
* ''perdea'' "curtain" (< Turkish ''perde'')
* ''sadea'' "pure" (< Turkish ''sade'' "plain")
* ''șah'' "chess" (< Turkish ''şah "''king (chess)''"'')
* ''șal'' "shawl" (< Turkish ''şal'')
* ''șerbet'' "sherbet" (< Turkish ''şerbet'')
* ''sictir'' "trivial swearing (< Turkish ''siktir'')
* ''șiret'' "profiter" (< Turkish ''şirret'')
* ''sultan'' "ruler" (< Turkish ''sultan'')
* ''suliman'' "herbaceous plant" (< Turkish ''sülümen'')
* ''surghiuni'' "exile" (< Turkish ''sürgün'')
* ''tabiet'' "pleasure" (< Turkish ''tabiat'' "nature")
* ''tacâm'' "set" (< Turkish ''takım'')
* ''tacla'' "conversation" (< Turkish ''takla'')
* ''tain'' "provision" (< Turkish ''tayin'')
* ''talaș'' "sawdust" (< Turkish ''talaş'')
* ''tarabă'' "type of table" (< Turkish ''tarab'')
* ''taraf'' "party" (< Turkish ''taraf'')
* ''taman'' "complete" (< Turkish ''tamam'')
* ''tavă'' "plate" (< Turkish ''tava'')
* ''tavan'' "ceiling" (< Turkish ''tavan'')
* ''tembel'' "idiot" (< Turkish ''tembel'' "lazy")
* ''tertip'' "arrangement" (< Turkish ''tertip'')
* ''teșcherea'' "memorandum" (< Turkish ''tezkere'')
* ''tevatură'' "loud" (< Turkish ''tevatür'')
* ''tichie'' "skullcap" (< Turkish ''takke'')
* ''tinichea'' "tin" (< Turkish ''teneke'')
* ''tipsie'' "tray" (< Turkish ''tepsi'')
* ''tiptil'' "slowly" (< Turkish ''tebdil'')
* ''tizic'' "prismatic cake" (< Turkish ''tezek'' "manure")
* ''toi'' "banquet" (< Turkish ''toy'')
* ''tuci'' "cast iron" (< Turkish ''tuç'')
* ''tutun'' "tobacco" (< Turkish ''tütün'')
* ''ursuz'' "sinister" (< Turkish ''uğursuz'')
* ''vizir'' "minister" (< Turkish ''vezir'')
* ''zaiafet'' "party" (< Turkish ''ziyāfet'' "feast")
* ''zar'' "dice" (< Turkish ''zar'')
* ''zaraf'' "moneychanger" (< Turkish ''sarraf'')
* ''zeflemea'' "kidding" (< Turkish ''zevklenmek'')
* ''zor'' "hurry" (< Turkish ''zor'')
Food and beverage loanwords of Turkish origin:
* ''airan'' "doogh" (< Turkish ''ayran'')
* ''baclava'' " baclava" (< Turkish ''baklava'')
* ''cafea'' "coffee" (< Turkish ''kahve'')
* ''caimac'' "cream" (< Turkish '' kaymak'')
* ''caisă'' "apricot" (< Turkish ''kayısı'')
* ''cașcaval'' " chesse" (< Turkish ''kaşkaval'')
* ''cataif'' " knafeh" (< Turkish ''künefe'')
* ''ceai'' "tea" (< Turkish ''çay'')
* ''covrig'' "simit" (< Turkish ''gevrek'')
* ''chefir'' "kefir" (< Turkish ''kefír'')
*''chiftea'' "meatballs" (< Turkish ''köfte'')
* ''ciorbă'' "chorba" (< Turkish ''çorba'')
* ''dolma'' "dolma" (< Turkish ''dolma'')
* ''halva'' "sweet" (< Turkish ''halva'')
* ''iaurt'' "yogurt" (< Turkish ''yoğurt'')
* ''musaca'' "moussaka (< Turkish ''musakka'')
* ''pilaf'' "pilaf" (< Turkish ''pilav'')
* ''rachiu/rachie'' " fruit spirit" (< Turkish ''rakı'')
* ''rahat'' "turkish delight (< Turkish ''rahat lokkum'')
* ''sarmale'' " cabbage rolls" (< Turkish ''sarma'')
* ''șofran'' "saffron" (< Turkish ''şafran'')
* ''susan'' "sesame" (< Turkish ''susam'')
* ''telemea'' " telemea" (< Turkish ''teleme'')
* ''tulumbă'' " tulumba" (< Turkish ''tulumba'')

Many Ottoman and Phanariot Greek words have acquired pejorative meanings compared with their original meaning:
* Turkish ("stick") became ("the tube of a hookah") and now is "bribe", since, like a pipe, it is offered to ease a deal.
* Ottoman ("treasure, treasure chamber") became ("septic tank, latrine").
* Phanariot Greek ("practical-minded man") became ("immoral person"). Its cognate from French has maintained a neutral meaning.
* Arabic , ''rāḥa(t) al-ḥulqūm'' ("throat comfort"), through Turkish (" Turkish delights") became Romanian ("shit").

German loanwords

Less numerous, German loanwords first entered the language with the contact with Saxons colonists. Words like ''turn'' - tower referring to medieval architecture, but also ''șanț; joagăr, buștean, șindrilă, leaț, șopron, șură'' from the field of woodwork were then joined by others such as ''cartof'', ''bere'', ''șurub'', ''șvaițer'', ''șpriț'', and ''șnițel''.

Modern Romanian

Romanian dialect, called Daco-Romanian in specialty literature to distinguish it from the other dialects of Common Romanian, inherited from Latin about 2000 words (a similar number to other Romance languages), a relatively small number compared to its modern lexis of 150000. In the 19th century, as the Romanian society transitioned from rural and agricultural towards urban and industrial, the lexis underwent a vigorous enrichment with loanwords from its Romance relatives, French and Italian. Many scholarly and technical terms were also imported from Neo-Latin. Some words, especially of Greek (', ', ') and Turkish (', ', ') origin, fell into relative disuse or acquired an ironic connotation.

Among the words which entered the language:
* ''deja'' "already" (from French ''déjà'')
* ''jena'' "disturb" (from French ''gener'')
* ''medic'' "physician" (from Latin ''medicus'')
* ''servi'' "serve" (from French or Italian)
* ''ziar'' "newspapers" (from Italian ''diario'')

A statistical analysis sorting Romanian words by etymological source carried out by Macrea (1961) based on the DLRM (49,649 words) showed the following makeup:

* 43% recent Romance loans (mainly French: 38.42%, Latin: 2.39%, Italian: 1.72%)
* 20% inherited Latin
* 11.5% Slavic (Old Church Slavonic: 7.98%, Bulgarian: 1.78%, Bulgarian-Serbian: 1.51%)
* 8.31% Unknown/unclear origin
* 3.62% Turkish
* 2.40% Modern Greek
* 2.17% Hungarian
* 1.77% German (including Austrian High German)Hans Dama
"Lexikale Einflüsse im Rumänischen aus dem österreichischen Deutsch" ("Lexical influences of 'Austrian'-German on the Romanian Language")

* 2.24% Onomatopoeic

If the analysis is restricted to a core vocabulary of 2,500 frequent, semantically rich and productive words, then the Latin inheritance comes first, followed by Romance and classical Latin neologisms, whereas the Slavic borrowings come third.

Romanian has a lexical similarity of 77% with Italian, 75% with French, 74% with Sardinian, 73% with Catalan, 72% with Portuguese and Rheto-Romance, 71% with Spanish.

Nowadays, the longest word in Romanian is , with 44 letters, but the longest one admitted by the '' Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române'' ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language", DEX) is , with 25 letters.

English loanwords

An increasing number of words from English entered the language in recent times. Among them are: interviu, miting, manager.

See also

* Substrate in Romanian
* List of Romanian words of possible Dacian origin
*Romanian Academy

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Romanian Lexis
Lexis, Romanian
Lexis (linguistics)