The Qihuo () were a refugee group during the

Jin dynasty (266–420) The Jin dynasty or Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the or the , was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty in China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Emperor Wu of Jin, Sima Yan, eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had previou ...

and

Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms (), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. The majority of these states were founded b ...

period. Originating from

Bing province Bingzhou, or Bing Province, was a location in ancient China. According to legend, when Yu the Great (–2100 BC) tamed the flood, he divided the land of China into the Nine Provinces. Historical texts such as the ''Rites of Zhou'', and "Treatise ...

in modern-day

Shanxi Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...

, the Qihuo branched out to parts of

Hebei Hebei is a Provinces of China, province in North China. It is China's List of Chinese administrative divisions by population, sixth-most populous province, with a population of over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. It bor ...

and

Henan Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...

during the

Upheaval of the Five Barbarians The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians also translated as the Uprising, Rebellion or the Revolt of the Five Barbarians () is a Chinese expression used to refer to a chaotic period of warfare from 304 to 316 during the fall of the Western Jin dynast ...

, where they acted as semi-autonomous militia forces for the Jin. Among the various refugee groups of their time, the Qihuo lasted the longest, as even after a century since the fall of the Western Jin, their descendants continued to invoke the group's name and provide military services.

History

Origins

At the start of the 4th century, northern China was ravaged by both the

War of the Eight Princes The War of the Eight Princes, Rebellion of the Eight Kings, or Rebellion of the Eight Princes ( zh, t=八王之亂, s=八王之乱, p=bā wáng zhī luàn, w=pa wang chih luan) was a series of coups and civil wars among kings/princes (Chinese: '' ...

and the

. In addition to the perpetual state of war, famines and natural disasters were also frequent occurrences in the north, displacing many of the civil population. These refugees would form groups to better defend themselves against threats, and either fled southwards where the situation was more stable or opted to remain in the north by occupying fortified settlements (塢堡; ''wubao'') and other strategic locations. Bing province in modern-day Shanxi during this period was especially affected by the famine, and also by a

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of Nomad, nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese historiography, Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, t ...

rebellion which saw the formation of the Han-Zhao dynasty in 304. In 306, the provincial inspector,

Sima Teng Sima Teng (司馬腾) (died June or July 307), courtesy name Yuanmai (元迈), posthumously known as Prince Wu'ai of Xincai, was a Western Jin imperial prince. He was a younger brother of Sima Yue, Prince Xiaoxian of Donghai, a regent for Empe ...

was transferred to

Ji province Ji Province, also known by its Chinese name Jizhou, was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. It is referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. It consisted of lands north of the Y ...

to serve as the Chief Controller for the city of Ye. He allowed many of the generals in Bing, along with more than 10,000 officials, to follow him to Ji where they could find for food. These generals formed a group which they dubbed "Qihuo" or "Begging-for-Life"; key members around this time include Tian Zhen (田甄), his brother Tian Lan (田蘭), Ren Zhi (任祉), Qi Ji (祁濟), Li Yun (李惲), and Bo Sheng (薄盛). The Qihuo leaders were mostly

Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...

, with Bo Sheng being a notable exception as he was a "

Wuhuan The Wuhuan (, < Eastern Han Chinese: *''ʔɑ-ɣuɑn'', <

Rise to power

In 307, Sima Teng was killed in Ye by the rebel forces of

Ji Sang Ji Sang (280s - 11 January 308) was a Chinese rebel of the Western Jin dynasty. During his days as a shepherd, he befriended a Jie slave whom he would name Shi Le (the future Emperor Ming of Later Zhao). The two raised a personal army and late ...

and

Shi Le Shi Le (; 274 –17 August 333), courtesy name Shilong, also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Ming of Later Zhao, was the founding emperor of the Jie-led Later Zhao dynasty of China. He was initially sold as a slave by Western Jin ...

, who then laid siege on the former Inspector of Shi Xian (石鮮) at Leling (樂陵; present-day

Yangxin County, Shandong Yangxin County () is a county of northwestern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city A prefecture-level city () or prefectural city is an administrative division of the Chi ...

). Seeking to avenge their former master, the Qihuo rallied 50,000 troops to rescue Shi Xian, although he was eventually killed in battle, and a contingent of the Qihuo led by Tian Yin (田禋) was defeated by Shi Le. The rebels were later defeated by the Jin generals,

Gou Xi Gou Xi (died November 311), courtesy name Daojiang, was a Chinese military commander of the Western Jin Dynasty. He came to prominence as a general under the Prince of Donghai, Sima Yue, after he quelled the rebellions of Gongshi Fan (公師藩), ...

and Ding Shao (丁邵). As Ji Sang was fleeing, Tian Zhen and the Qihuo ambushed him at Leling, where they killed him. For their contributions, the Grand Tutor and Prince of Donghai,

Sima Yue Sima Yue (司馬越) (died 23 April 311), courtesy name Yuanchao (元超), formally Prince Xiaoxian of Donghai (東海孝獻王), was a Jin dynasty (266–420), Western Jin imperial prince and regent for Emperor Hui of Jin, Emperor Hui and Emper ...

appointed Tian Zhen and Tian Lan as the Administrator of Ji Commandery and Administrator of Julu Commandery respectively. When Tian Zhen requested for Wei Commandery instead, Sima Yue rejected him, which caused him to resent the prince. In 308, Sima Yue moved to Xingyang where he summoned Tian Zhen and the others. When they refused to respond, he sent his general Liu Wang (劉望) to campaign against them. Tian Zhen fled after Liu Wang's forces crossed the

Yellow River The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...

, while Tian Lan was beheaded by Li Yun and Bo Sheng who then surrendered. Tian Zhen, Ren Zhi and Qi Ji all abandoned their armies and fled to

Shangdang Commandery Shangdang Commandery or Shangdang Prefecture (, also named Shangtang) was an administrative subdivision of ancient China from the time of the Spring and Autumn period (771–403 BCE). Consisting of a number of districts or ''Zhōu'' (, or prefectur ...

. The surrendered Qihuo largely kept their autonomy, but were willing to lend their military to the Jin. In 309, Shi Le, now a general of Han-Zhao, attacked Zhongqiu County (中丘縣; west of present-day

Neiqiu County Neiqiu County () is a county in southwest of Hebei province, People's Republic of China, bordering Shanxi province to the west. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Xingtai Xingtai ( zh, s= , t=邢臺, p=Xíngtái , ...

, Hebej) and destroyed the Qihuo branch led by Tian Yin and She Ting (赦亭). Later that same year, Li Yun, Bo Sheng and the others aided Sima Yue in lifting the siege of the Jin capital,

Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...

from Han forces led by Liu Cong and Wang Mi. As Liu Cong retreated, the Qihuo managed to defeat Wang Mi at Xinji (新汲, in modern

Fugou County Fugou County () is a county of east-central Henan province, China. It is under the administration of Zhoukou Zhoukou ( zh, s=周口 , p=Zhōukǒu, w=Chou-k’ou; Postal romanization, postal: Chowkow) is a prefecture-level city in eastern Hen ...

, Henan). In 310, Li Yun, Chen Wu (陳午) and the others attempted to relive Jin forces at Huai County (懷縣; in present-day Wuzhi County, Henan), but was routed by the Han. When Sima Yue departed from Luoyang with the imperial army in 310, Li Yun, serving as his Dragon Soaring General, was one of his confidants who he left behind to monitor the near-defenseless capital and

Emperor Huai of Jin Emperor Huai of Jin (; 284 – March 14, 313), personal name Sima Chi (司馬熾), courtesy name Fengdu (豐度), was an emperor of the Jin dynasty. Emperor Huai was captured in July 311 ( Disaster of Yongjia) and later executed in 313 under t ...

. After relations broke down between Sima Yue and his general, Gou Xi, who was conspiring with the emperor to depose the prince, Chen Wu was one of the Qihuo who sided with the latter.

Guangzong branch

In April 311, Sima Yue died while he was camping at Xiang County (項縣; in present-day Shenqiu County, Henan), and the Jin imperial army was annihilated by Shi Le at the Battle of Ningping in May. When news of Yue's death reached Luoyang, Li Yun and the rest of Yue's allies panicked. They brought with them Yue's concubine,

Lady Pei ''Lady'' is a term for a woman who behaves in a polite way. Once used to describe only women of a high social class or status, the female counterpart of lord, now it may refer to any adult woman, as gentleman can be used for men. "Lady" is al ...

and his son, Sima Pi (司馬毗) to flee east out of Luoyang. Many of the city inhabitants followed them, and widespread violence and looting ensued. As the group was passing through Weicang (洧倉; northwest of present-day

Yanling County, Henan Yanling County () is a county in the central part of Henan province, China. It is the easternmost county-level division of the prefecture-level city of Xuchang. History Human habitation of the area began around 6000 BC. In the early Zhou dynasty ...

), they were attacked by Shi Le and defeated. The members of the imperial family were slaughtered, and Li Yun, after killing his own wife and children, fled to Guangzong County (廣宗縣; southeast of present-day

Guangzong County Guangzong County () is under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Xingtai in the south of Hebei province, China. It has a population of 270,000 residing in an area of . Administrative divisions The county administers 1 towns and 7 tow ...

, Hebei) with the remaining Qihuo. Not long after the defeat at Weicang, Luoyang and Emperor Huai were lost to Han forces in the

Disaster of Yongjia The Disaster of Yongjia (simplified Chinese: 永嘉之乱; traditional Chinese: 永嘉之亂) occurred in 311 CE, when forces of the Han-Zhao dynasty captured and sacked Luoyang, the capital of the Western Jin dynasty. The Han's army committed a m ...

in July. The Jin Inspector of

You Province You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese language, Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture (''Zhou (country subdivision), zhou'') in North China, northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient so ...

, Wang Jun installed a new crown prince of Jin and began handing out appointments. Among them, Li Yun was appointed the Inspector of

Qing province Qingzhou or Qing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China dating back to BCE that later became one of the thirteen provinces of the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The Nine Provinces were first described in the ''Tribute ...

despite having little real power over the region. In 312, Shi Le attacked and killed Li Yun at the city of Shangbai (上白) in Guangzong. While he initially considered killing the surrendered Qihuo soldiers, he quickly changed his mind after he found that his old friend,

Guo Jing Guo Jing is the fictional protagonist of the wuxia novel ''The Legend of the Condor Heroes'' by Jin Yong. He also appears as a supporting character in the sequel, ''The Return of the Condor Heroes'', and is mentioned by name in ''The Heaven Sw ...

, was one of their general. He had the troops pardoned and placed them under Guo Jing's command. After Li Yun's death, Wang Jun had him replaced with Bo Sheng. However, in 313, Bo Sheng captured Jin's Administrator of Bohai, Liu Ji (劉既) and brought with him 5,000 troops to surrender to Shi Le. Wang Jun was eventually defeated by Shi Le in 314.

Chenliu branch

South of the Yellow River at Chenliu Commandery (陳留郡, roughly modern

Kaifeng Kaifeng ( zh, s=开封, p=Kāifēng) is a prefecture-level city in east-Zhongyuan, central Henan province, China. It is one of the Historical capitals of China, Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and ...

, Henan), Chen Wu acted as a subordinate to Gou Xi's ally, Wang Zan (王讚), but by 311, both Gou Xi and Wang Zan were captured and executed by Shi Le. Chen Wu continued to hold out at Pengguan (蓬關; south of present-day Kaifeng, Henan) and Feize (肥澤; in Kaifeng). Although he briefly surrendered to Shi Le, he soon rebelled against him at Junyi County (浚儀, in Kaifeng) in 313. In 316, Shi Le sent his general, Shi Hu to attack the Qihuo at Liangcheng (梁城; in Kaifeng), but he was defeated by Wang Ping (王平). Chen Wu died in 319, and before his death, he warned his people to never serve the " Hu" people. His son, Chen Chite (陳赤特), was still young, so his generals, Feng Chong (馮寵) and Li Tou (李頭) elected his cousin, Chen Chuan (陳川) to assist Chite. During Zu Ti's northern expedition that same year, Chen Chuan sent Li Tou to assist him against a rival warlord, Fan Ya (樊雅) at Qiao. However, he became apprehensive of Li Tou, who he thought spoke too highly of Zu Ti, and had him executed. Feng Chong promptly led 400 people to surrender to Zu Ti, angering Chen Chuan even further. He plundered the commanderies of Yu province but was defeated in an ambush laid by Zu Ti. He then surrendered Junyi to Shi Le, who had recently established the Later Zhao dynasty, and was relocated to Xiangguo (襄國, in modern

Xingtai Xingtai ( zh, s= , t=邢臺, p=Xíngtái , w=Hsing2-tʻai2), formerly known as Xingzhou and Shunde, is a prefecture-level city in southern Hebei province, People's Republic of China. It has a total area of and administers 4 districts, 2 coun ...

, Hebei) with 5,000 households, though another sources states they were relocated to Guangzong.

Later history

From hereafter, the Qihuo became less active but continued to make sporadic appearances in history as they maintained their presence in Hebei and Henan for roughly a century. In 349, the Qihuo in Guangzong gave protection to the Later Zhao dynasty's Minister of Works,

Li Nong Li Nong (died June 350) was a Chinese military general and politician of the Later Zhao and Ran Wei dynasties during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. He was a notable official under Later Zhao's emperor Shi Hu, fighting against the Jin and Former Y ...

who was attacked by the Zhao's imperial army.

Ran Min Ran Min (; died 352), also known as Shi Min (石閔), posthumously honored by the Former Yan as Heavenly King Wudao of (Ran) Wei ((冉)魏武悼天王), courtesy name Yongzeng (永曾), nickname Jinu (棘奴), was a military leader during the er ...

, the founder of the

Ran Wei Wei ( zh, 魏; 350–352), known as Ran Wei () in Chinese historiography, was a short-lived Dynasties of China, dynastic state of China established by Ran Min. In 350, Ran Wei usurped the throne of the Later Zhao, Later Zhao dynasty in the city ...

who brought upon Later Zhao's demise, was a descendant of the Qihuo, as his father, Ran Zhan was once a subordinate under Chen Chuan. In 354, Guo Chang (郭敞) and other Qihuo generals north of the

Yangzi river The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...

rebelled against Jin, capturing the Interior Minister of Chenliu, Liu Shi (劉仕) and surrendering the commandery to the Qiang warlord,

Yao Xiang Yao Xiang (331?–357), courtesy name Jingguo, posthumously honored Prince Wu of Wei, was an ethnic Qiang warlord during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Jin dynasty (266–420) in Chinese history. He was the fifth son and heir of the Later Zhao genera ...

. During the reign of Fu Jian of the Former Qin dynasty (357–385), one member of the Qihuo, Xia Mo (夏默), was appointed as the Gentleman of the Left Garrison. In 370, there were several hundred Qihuo soldiers under the Jin general,

Yuan Zhen Yuan Zhen (; 779 – September 2, 831), courtesy name Weizhi (), was a Chinese novelist, poet, and politician of the middle Tang dynasty. In prose literature, Yuan Zhen is particularly known for his work '' Yingying's Biography'', which has oft ...

when he rebelled at

Shouchun Shou County or Shouxian () is a county in the north-central part of Anhui Province, China, and is located on the southern (right) bank of the Huai River. It is the southernmost county-level division of the prefecture-level city of Huainan. Its p ...

, but after the rebellion's defeat in 371, the Jin commander, Huan Wen had them all executed. In 386, a Qihuo general in Henan, Huang Huai (黃淮), proclaimed himself Inspector of Bing province and allied with the

Dingling The Dingling (174 BCE); (200 BCE); Eastern Han Chinese: *''teŋ-leŋ'' < Old Chinese: *''têŋ-rêŋ'' were an ancient people who appear in Chinese historiography in the context of the 1st century BCE. The Dingling are considered to have been ...

rebel,

Zhai Liao Zhai Liao (; died 391) was a leader of the western Dingling horde and the founder of the Dingling-led Zhai Wei dynasty of China. During his reign, he used the monarchical title of Heavenly King. Early career Zhai Liao, a royal family member of ...

to attack Changshe (長社; present-day

Changge Changge () is a county-level city under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Xuchang, in the central part of central Henan Province, China. In the Han dynasty, it was known as Changshe (). It ranges in latitude from 34° 09' to 34° ...

, Henan) with thousands of people. However, he was defeated and killed by Jin forces. The Qihuo's last appearance in history was in 419. When many of the imperial Jin family fled to the south of the Yellow River, the general, Shao Ping (邵平) led more than a thousand Qihuo soldiers from Bing province to welcome Sima Wenrong (司馬文榮) at the south of Jinyong (金鏞; northwest of Luoyang, Henan). After Wenrong was assassinated by a relative, Sima Shunming (司馬順明), who occupied Lingyun Terrace (陵雲台) west of Luoyang, Shao Ping acclaimed Shunming as the new leader.(順明遣刺殺文榮，平復推順明為主。) ''Songshu'', vol.45 Shunming later surrendered to the

Northern Wei dynasty Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( zh, c=北魏, p=Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei ( zh, c=拓跋魏, p=Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei ( zh, c=元魏, p=Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei ( zh, t=後魏, p=Hòu Wèi), was an imperial dynasty of Chi ...

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Qihuo Jin dynasty (266–420) people Sixteen Kingdoms people