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''Purusha'' (' or ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...
and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or
self The self is an individual as the object of that individual’s own reflective consciousness. Since the ''self'' is a reference by a subject to the same subject, this reference is necessarily subjective. The sense of having a self—or ''selfhoo ...
,
awareness Awareness is the state of being conscious of something. More specifically, it is the ability to directly know and perceive, to feel, or to be cognizant of events. Another definition describes it as a state wherein a subject is aware of some in ...
, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp 105-109 In early Vedas, ''Purusha'' was a cosmic being whose sacrifice by the gods created all life. This was one of many
creation myths A creation myth (or cosmogonic myth) is a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it., "Creation myths are symbolic stories describing how the universe and its inhabitants came to be. Creation myths develop ...
discussed in the Vedas. In the Upanishads, the ''Purusha'' concept refers to the abstract essence of the Self, Spirit and the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form, and is all-pervasive. In
Sankhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a dualistic school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit); and ''prakṛti'', (nature ...
philosophy, Purusha is the plural immobile cosmic principle, pure consciousness, unattached and unrelated to anything, which is “nonactive, unchanging, eternal, and pure”. Purusha uniting with
Prakṛti Prakriti ( sa, प्रकृति ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by its Sāṅkhya school, where it does not refer to matter or nature, b ...
(matter) gives rise to life. In
Kashmir Shaivism Kashmir Shaivism or Trika Shaivism, is a nondualist tradition of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra which originated sometime after 850 CE. Since this tradition originated in Kashmir it is often called "Kashmiri Shaivism". It later went on to become a pan- ...
, Purusha is enveloped in five sheaths of time ('' Kāla''), desire (''
Raga A ''raga'' or ''raag'' (; also ''raaga'' or ''ragam''; ) is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a melodic mode. The ''rāga'' is a unique and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, and as ...
''), restriction ('' Niyati''), knowledge ('' Vidya'') and portion of time (''Kalā''); it is the universal Self ('' Paramatman'') under limitations as many individual Selfs ('' Jīvātman'').


Definition and general meaning

There is no consensus among schools of Hinduism on the definition of ''Purusha'', and it is left to each school and individual to reach their own conclusions. For example, one of many theistic traditions script such as Kapilasurisamvada, credited to another ancient Hindu philosopher named Kapila, first describes ''Purusha'' in a manner similar to Samkhya-Yoga schools, but then proceeds to describe buddhi (intellect) as second ''Purusha'', and
ahamkara Ahaṁkāra (Sanskrit: अहंकार), 'I-making' is a Sanskrit term in Saṃkhyā philosophy that refers to the identification of Self or Being with 'Nature' or any impermanent 'thing'. Reference in Bhagavad Gita Ahaṁkāra is one of t ...
(egoism) as third ''Purusha''. Such pluralism and diversity of thought within Hinduism implies that the term ''Purusha'' is a complex term with diverse meanings. The animating causes, fields, and principles of nature are ''Purusha'' in Hindu philosophy. Hinduism refers to ''Purusha'' as the soul of the
universe The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the univers ...
, the universal spirit present everywhere, in everything and everyone, all the time. ''Purusha'' is the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form, and all-pervasive. It is ''Purusha'' in the form of nature’s laws and principles that operate in the background to regulate guide, and direct change, evolution, cause, and effect. It is ''Purusha'', in the Hindu concept of existence, that breathes life into matter, is the source of all consciousness, one that creates oneness in all life forms, in all of humanity, and the essence of Self. It is ''Purusha'', according to Hinduism, why the universe operates, is dynamic and evolves, as against being static.


Vedas

During the
Vedic period The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (ca. 1300–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, betwe ...
, the ''Purusha'' concept was one of several mythemes offered for the creation of the universe. ''Purusa'', in the
Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only on ...
, was described as a being who becomes a sacrificial victim of the gods, and whose sacrifice creates all life forms including human beings.Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, , pp 87 In the ''
RigVeda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only on ...
,'' " is Puruṣa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be" (पुरुष एवेदं सर्वं यद भूतं यच्च भव्यम, ).


Varna system

In the Purusha Sukta, the 90th hymn of the 10th book of the Rigveda, '' Varna'' is portrayed as a result of human beings created from different parts of the body of the divinity ''Purusha''. This Purusha Sukta verse is controversial and is believed by many scholars, such as
Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...
, to be a corruption and medieval or modern era insertion into Veda, because unlike all other major concepts in the Vedas including those of ''Purusha'', the four varnas are never mentioned anywhere else in any of the Vedas, and because this verse is missing in some manuscript prints found in different parts of India.


Upanishads

The abstract idea ''Purusha'' is extensively discussed in various Upanishads, and referred interchangeably as Paramatman and
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
(not to be confused with Brahmin).Angelika Malinar, 'Hindu Cosmologies', in Jessica Frazier (ed.), ''A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies'', , p. 67 In the Upanishads and later texts of
Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...
, the ''Purusha'' concept moved away from the Vedic definition of ''Purusha'' and was no longer a person, cosmic man or entity. Instead, the concept flowered into a more complex abstraction: In the Upanishads, the ''Purusha'' concept refers to abstract essence of the Self, Spirit and the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and is all pervasive. The ''Purusha'' concept is explained with the concept of '' Prakrti'' in the Upanishads. The Universe is envisioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts as a combination of the perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature.Theos Bernard (1947)
The Hindu Philosophy
The Philosophical Library, New York, pp 69-72
Material reality (or ''Prakrti'') is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. ''Purusha'' is the Universal principle that is unchanging, uncaused but is present everywhere and the reason why ''Prakrti'' changes, transforms and transcends all of the time and which is why there is cause and effect.
Rishi ''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" o ...
Angiras of the Atma Upanishad belonging to the
Atharvaveda The Atharva Veda (, ' from ' and ''veda'', meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of ''atharvāṇas'', the procedures for everyday life".Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and G ...
explains that ''Purusha'', the dweller in the body, is three-fold: the Bahyatman (the Outer-Atman) which is born and dies; the Antaratman (the Inner-Atman) which comprehends the whole range of material phenomena, gross and subtle, with which the
Jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. The ''jiva'', ...
concerns himself, and the Paramatman which is all-pervading, unthinkable, indescribable, is without action and has no
Samskaras Samskara, saṃskāra, saṅskāra or sanskara may refer to: * Sanskara (rite of passage), Hindu and Jain rites of passage * Samskara (ayurvedic), a technique in ayurvedic medicine * Samskara (Indian philosophy), the concept of imprints or impress ...
.


In Samkhya and Yoga

Both
Samkhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a dualistic school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit); and ''prakṛti'', (nature ...
, a school of
Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...
that considers reason, as against
Nyaya (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Mīmāṃsā ''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts.
school's tradition, as the proper source of knowledge, and Yoga philosophy state that there are two ultimate realities whose interaction accounts for all experiences and universe, namely Purusha (spirit) and Prakrti (matter). The universe is envisioned as a combination of perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature. Material reality, or ''Prakrti'', is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. Universal principle, or ''Purusha'', is that which is unchanging (
aksara Aksara (also ''akshara'', Devanagari अक्षर, IAST ''akṣara'') is a Sanskrit term translating to "imperishable, indestructible, fixed, immutable" (i.e. from अ, '' a-'' "not" and क्षर्, ''kṣar-'' "melt away, perish"). It h ...
) and is uncaused. Puruṣa is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". Puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce. It is held that unlike
Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ...
and like Purva-Mīmāṃsā, Samkhya believes in plurality of the puruṣas. Yoga philosophy holds that, in addition to the purusha of each individual, there is a special purusha called
Ishvara ''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of ...
, which is free of all kleshas and karmas. Both Samkhya and Yoga school holds that the path to moksha (release, Self-realization) includes the realization of ''Purusha''.


Puranas

In the Puranas, "The
Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in S ...
and the
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...
boldly proclaim
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
as ultimate Purusha described in Purusha Sukta prayer", whereas
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...
is described as ultimate Purusha (cosmic male) in
Shiva Purana The ''Shiva Purana'' is one of eighteen major texts of the ''Purana'' genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily revolves around the Hindu god Shiva and goddess Parvati, but references and ...
. According to
Indologist Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies. The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') i ...
W. Norman Brown, "The verses of Purusha Sukta are definitely a reference to
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
, who, through his three steps, is all pervading (i.e. he spreads in all directions)". The Bhagavata Purana explains the origin of the four varnas from the body of Purusha, identified as Vishnu:


Vedanta


Brahma Sutras

The
Brahma Sutras The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we c ...
state , meaning that 'The Absolute Truth is that from which everything else emanates'
Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in S ...
.1.1.1


See also

*
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
* Hindu deities * Hindu idealism *
Hindu mythology Hindu mythology is the body of myths and literature attributed to, and espoused by, the adherents of the Hindu religion, found in Hindu texts such as the Vedic literature, epics like ''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana'', the Puranas, and ...
*
Indian caste system The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of castes. It has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mu ...
*
Kingu Kingu, also spelled Qingu (, ), was a god in Babylonian mythology, and the son of the gods Abzu and Tiamat. After the murder of his father, Abzu, he served as the consort of his mother, Tiamat, who wanted to establish him as ruler and leader of ...
* Pangu * Spirit *
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
* Adam Kadmon * Adam kasia


Notes


References


Sources

* * * {{Consciousness Hindu philosophical concepts Rigvedic deities