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The puna grassland
ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of ...
, of the
montane grasslands and shrublands Montane grasslands and shrublands is a biome defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The biome includes high elevation grasslands and shrublands around the world. The term "montane" in the name of the biome refers to "high elevation", rather than th ...
biome A biome () is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to the physical environment in which they are found and a shared regional climate. Biomes may span more than one continent. Biome is a broader ...
, is found in the central Andes Mountains of
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sout ...
. It is considered one of the eight
Natural Regions A natural region (landscape unit) is a basic geographic unit. Usually, it is a region which is distinguished by its common natural features of geography, geology, and climate. From the ecological point of view, the naturally occurring flora and f ...
in
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = National seal , national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
,Pulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): Las ocho regiones naturales del Perú, Boletín del Museo de historia natural „Javier Prado“, n° especial, Lima, 1941, 17, pp. 145-161. but extends south, across
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
, Bolivia, and western northwest
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
. The term puna encompasses diverse ecosystems of the high Central Andes above 3200–3400 m.


Location

The puna is found above the
treeline The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of growing. It is found at high elevations and high latitudes. Beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions (usually cold temperatures, extreme snowp ...
at 3200–3500 m elevation, and below the permanent snow line above 4500–5000 m elevation. It extends from central Peru in the north, across the
Altiplano The Altiplano (Spanish for "high plain"), Collao (Quechua and Aymara: Qullaw, meaning "place of the Qulla") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the most extensive high plateau on Earth outside Tibet. The plateau is located at the ...
plateau of Peru, Chile and Bolivia, and south along the spine of the
Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
into northwest
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
. Other sources claim that it goes on Suni (high plateaus and cliffs, some agriculture) and from 4000 m to the snow line ( permafrost and alpine desert) of puna grassland (mountain tops and slopes, much colder).


Ecoregions

The puna is a diverse ecosystem that comprises varied ecoregions labeled wet/moist puna, dry puna and desert puna.


Wet/moist puna (Central Andean wet puna)

This ecoregion is a high elevation, wet, montane grassland in the southern high Andes, occurring from northern
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = National seal , national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
to northern Bolivia. The wet puna shares its border on the west with the Sechura desert and the east with the wet Peruvian Yungas. The characteristically mountainous landscape contains high lakes, mountain valleys, snow-covered mountains, and plateaux. The high elevation of the wet puna (4200 to 5000 m) causes the area to have large temperature differences between night and day. The average annual temperature is low, ranging from 5 to 7 °C; with night frost periods from March to October. Temperatures shift from characteristic summer highs in the day and drop to winter lows at night. This extreme temperature shift has caused selective adaptation to occur and many endemic plants such as the Culcitium, Perezia, and
Polylepis ''Polylepis'' is a genus comprising 28 recognised shrub and tree species, that are endemic to the mid- and high-elevation regions of the tropical Andes. This group is unique in the rose family in that it is predominantly wind-pollinated. They are ...
center their diversity in the wet puna. The ecoregion contains snow-capped peaks, glacial lakes, and several rivers that originate in the Cordilleras. The biggest lake in the ecoregion is
Lake Titicaca Lake Titicaca (; es, Lago Titicaca ; qu, Titiqaqa Qucha) is a large freshwater lake in the Andes mountains on the border of Bolivia and Peru. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world. By volume of water and by surface area, i ...
, which is the highest navigable lake in the world, at an elevation of 3800 m (above sea level). The Suches and Tiwanacu rivers in Bolivia are the lakes tributaries. The areas in the north surrounding Lake Titicaca have eight wet months, and the areas in the south have one to two wet months. The average precipitation in this region ranges from 400 to 2000 mm.


Dry puna (Central Andean dry puna)

This ecoregion is a very dry, high elevation montane grassland of the southern high Andes. It extends into northern Chile and northwest Argentina and east into western Bolivia occurring above 3500 m between the tree and permanent snow lines. The vegetation of the dry puna consists of tropical alpine herbs with dwarf shrubs. Within the dry puna are salt flats, high plateaus, snow-covered peaks and volcanoes. Dry puna is distinguished from the other types of puna by its diminished annual rainfall. The dry puna has an 8-month long dry season and receives less than 400 mm of rainfall each year. The region lies at an elevation of 3500–5000 m above sea level. The dry puna is oligothermic as well. The average temperatures in this ecoregion range from 8 to 11 degrees Celsius and are lowest in the south. As a result of the elevation, varied temperatures and lack of rainfall, the Central Andean dry puna is a unique ecoregion with highly adapted flora and fauna. The southern region of the dry puna encompasses an even drier puna known as the desert puna. In the desert puna the average rainfall ranges from only 51–406 mm. The desert puna is dominated by the huge salt lakes and is known for the scattered halophytes around and in the depressions. These salt lakes are home to the endemic Andean flamingo. The World Wildlife fund defines three distinct puna sub-ecoregions: * NT1003 Central Andean wet puna (Bolivia, Peru) – With about 1000 mm of precipitation each year, it tends to be covered by grasses mixed with herbs, lichens, mosses, and ferns. Wet areas have sedges and rushes. The ''
Polylepis ''Polylepis'' is a genus comprising 28 recognised shrub and tree species, that are endemic to the mid- and high-elevation regions of the tropical Andes. This group is unique in the rose family in that it is predominantly wind-pollinated. They are ...
'' forests of 10,000 years ago were likely cleared by fire for agriculture and grazing. Many areas are farmed. It extends from north-central Peru, adjacent to the páramos, and reaches southeast to along the eastern altiplano of Bolivia. * NT1002 Central Andean puna (Bolivia, Peru) – Covering most of southern Peru, the region is dominated by shrublands and thickets of
tola Tola may refer to: Places * Bella Tola, a mountain in the Pennine Alps in the Swiss canton of Valais * La Tola, a town and municipality in the Nariño Department, Colombia *Tola (Shakargarh), a village in Pakistan * Tola, Rivas, a municipality ...
shrubs. * NT1001 Central Andean dry puna (Northwest Argentina, Bolivia, Chile) – Mostly in the southern part of the Central Andes along the western cordillera of Bolivia. There is little agriculture.


Soil composition

Puna soils are composed of an organic rich layer and a stony layer. The average soil profile is 33 cm deep. The puna ecosystem has a low diversity of bacteria in its soils.Ferrero, M.A., Menoyo, E., Lugo, M.A., Negritto, M.A., Farías, M.E., Anton, A.M., Siñeriz, F. “Molecular characterization and in situ detection of bacterial communities associated with rhizosphere soil of high altitude native Poaceae from the Andean Puna region.” Journal of Arid Environments 74 (2010): 1177-1185 The rhizosphere of the grasses are dominated by the Bacillas species, these organisms are composed of dormant cells that enable them to survive in the extreme climatic conditions in the puna ecosystem. The dormant bacterial community of puna grasses is similar to those found in desert soils.


Flora

The puna flora is characterized by its unique assemblages of cushion and mat forming species. Many of these species, most notably the large ''
Azorella compacta __NOTOC__ Yareta or llareta (''Azorella compacta'', known historically as ''Azorella yareta'', from ''yarita'' in the Quechua language) is a velvety, chartreuse cushion plant in the family Apiaceae which is native to South America. It grows in ...
'' (Yareta) has been heavily harvested for fuel and medicinal use.LAMBRINOS, J.G., KLEIER, C.C., and RUNDEL, P.W. "Plant community variation across a puna landscape in the Chilean Andes." Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 79(2006): 233-244 The vegetation with the puna grassland displays complex patterns of spatial variation, despite the low cover and overall density. The puna belt which ranges from wet puna in the north of the Andes to dry puna to the southwestern Andes is composed mostly by poaceae (Grasses) and shrubs of the
asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...
(daisy) family.Kuentz, A., Gala´n de Mera, A., Ledru, M.P., and Thouret, J.C. "Phytogeographical data and modern pollen rain of the puna belt in southern Peru (Nevado Coropuna, Western Cordillera)." Journal of Biogeography 34 (2007): 1762–1776 Other representative grasses include species '' Jarava ichu'' ("Paja Brava"), '' Calamagrostis vicunarum'' ("Crespillo"), and '' Festuca dolichophylla'' ("Chillihua"). There are several main rock unit formations in the Puna with distinct soil conditions that can be used to identify the main flora of each area. Up to 3000 m above the desert, the arid vegetation of the mountainous steppe is characterized by columnar cacti, arid shrubs and herbs. Vegetation located between 3800 and 4000 m are sustained by brown andic soils on ash-fall deposits and includes many endemic plant species as '' Hersodoma arequipensis'', '' Piplostephium tacorense'' and '' Opuntia corotilla''. In the wettest area shrubby vegetation of families
asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...
, fabaceae and solanaceae dominate. The puna is generally drier than the páramo montane grasslands of the northern Andes.


Fauna


Mammals

Native mammals include (domesticated)
llama The llama (; ) (''Lama glama'') is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era. Llamas are social animals and live with others as a herd. Their wool is soft ...
and
alpaca The alpaca (''Lama pacos'') is a species of South American camelid mammal. It is similar to, and often confused with, the llama. However, alpacas are often noticeably smaller than llamas. The two animals are closely related and can success ...
, and their wild relatives, the
vicuña The vicuña (''Lama vicugna'') or vicuna (both , very rarely spelled ''vicugna'', its former genus name) is one of the two wild South American camelids, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco, which live ...
and
guanaco The guanaco (; ''Lama guanicoe'') is a camelid native to South America, closely related to the llama. Guanacos are one of two wild South American camelids, the other being the vicuña, which lives at higher elevations. Etymology The guanaco ...
. The rare Taruca deer is shy and reserved. Also present are well-known rodent species, such as chinchilla, paca, and the montane
guinea pig The guinea pig or domestic guinea pig (''Cavia porcellus''), also known as the cavy or domestic cavy (), is a species of rodent belonging to the genus '' Cavia'' in the family Caviidae. Breeders tend to use the word ''cavy'' to describe the ...
. Among carnivorous animals, there are puma (mountain lion),
Pampas cat The Pampas cat (''Leopardus colocola'') is a small wild cat native to South America. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List as habitat conversion and destruction may cause the population to decline in the future. It is named after ...
, the rare
Andean mountain cat The Andean mountain cat (''Leopardus jacobita'') is a small wild cat native to the high Andes that has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List because fewer than 1,500 individuals are thought to exist in the wild. It is traditionally con ...
, Andean fox, and some Spectacled bear. Relatively few birds, such as the
Darwin's rhea Darwin's rhea or the lesser rhea (''Rhea pennata'') is a large flightless bird, the smaller of the two extant species of rheas. It is found in the Altiplano and Patagonia in South America. Description The lesser rhea stands at tall. Lengt ...
,
Andean condor The Andean condor (''Vultur gryphus'') is a giant South American Cathartid vulture and is the only member of the genus ''Vultur''. Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America, the Andean condor is the larg ...
, and certain
miners A miner is a person who extracts ore, coal, chalk, clay, or other minerals from the earth through mining. There are two senses in which the term is used. In its narrowest sense, a miner is someone who works at the rock face; cutting, blasting, ...
and yellow-finches, are found in the vast expanses of puna grasslands; however, many more birds are associated with the highland lakes and marshes that are found in the puna. The most common examples are the
Andean goose The Andean goose (''Chloephaga melanoptera'') is a species of waterfowl in tribe Tadornini of subfamily Anserinae.HBW and BirdLife International (2021) Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International digital checklist of the bird ...
, Andean flamingo,
Andean avocet The Andean avocet (''Recurvirostra andina'') is a large wader in the avocet and stilt bird family, Recurvirostridae. It is resident in the Andes, breeding above 3500 m in northwestern Argentina, western Bolivia, northern Chile and southern Peru ...
, giant coot,
puna teal The Puna teal (''Spatula puna'') is a species of dabbling duck in the family Anatidae. It was at one time regarded as a subspecies of the silver teal. The Puna teal is resident in the Andes of Peru, western Bolivia, northern Chile, and extreme ...
and diademed sandpiper-plover. The highland puna is a biome that encompasses relatively large reserves.


Birds

Bird populations in the puna ecosystem are surprisingly diverse for such a harsh and extreme environment. For example, the Lauca National Park includes 148 species of birds, which represents about one third of the entire Chilean bird population. Many of these species are rare and attract visitors to the area. One example of this rare avifauna is the giant flightless
Darwin's rhea Darwin's rhea or the lesser rhea (''Rhea pennata'') is a large flightless bird, the smaller of the two extant species of rheas. It is found in the Altiplano and Patagonia in South America. Description The lesser rhea stands at tall. Lengt ...
(''Rhea pennata''), which is similar to the ostrich found in the Old World, reaching up to one meter in height and 20 kg in weight.Rundel, P. (2000). Preserving the Unique Puna Ecosystems of the Andean Altiplano. Bioone, 3, 262-271 The puna also includes a great variety of aquatic species particularly at
Chungará Lake Chungará is a lake situated in the extreme north of Chile at an elevation of , in the Altiplano of Arica y Parinacota Region in the Lauca National Park. It has a surface area of about and has a maximum depth of about . It receives inflow th ...
located in northern Chile. The puna ecosystem has a great diversity of freshwater fish. Some of these include the giant coot, the
silvery grebe The silvery grebe (''Podiceps occipitalis'') is a species of grebe in the family Podicipedidae. It is found in the western and southern part of South America at altitudes of up to . Its natural habitat is freshwater lakes but it also feeds in sa ...
, the Chilean teal, and the diademed sandpiper-plover (one of the rarest shorebirds in the world).


Human impact and conservation

Puna grasslands are being rapidly depleted by human activity, and as a result need much attention in the conservation realm. Numerous factors can lead to the cause of this destruction, but the preservation of it depends almost entirely on to what degree humans are populating the area. Humans dramatically shape the ecosystem through the conversion of much of the land to farming grounds and grazing areas. Due to the high demand for cooking and heating fuel among the residents of the area, much of the land is degraded. For example, trees of the polylepis genus used to be easily found throughout the ecosystem and now are scarce.The Puna: High Elevation Grassland of the Andes Brad Wilcox Rangelands, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Jun., 1984), pp. 99-101 Published by: Allen Press and Society for Range Management People of this region cultivate
barley Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley p ...
,
potato The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern Unit ...
es and
maca MACA or maca can mean: * Maca (plant) Places Geography * Maca District, Peru * Cerro Macá, stratovolcano in the Aisén Region of Chile * Maca River, Romania Outer space * 5228 Máca, a minor planet People * Alain Maca (born 1950), Belgian ...
. Alpacas, vicuñas, and guanacos are raised for
wool Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool. ...
, and llamas for wool and transport. Human habitation in the puna is widespread and tends to increase to the east, toward the moister areas. Native tubers and grains are cultivated over large areas of the central puna. The inhabitants of this region cultivate native tubers (potatoes and maca) along with non-native grains such as barley and native pseudocereals such as
quinoa Quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa''; , from Quechua ' or ') is a flowering plant in the amaranth family. It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are rich in protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins, a ...
. Alpacas, vicuñas, llamas, and guanacos are raised for wool and, as a result, most of the entirety of the puna is under the effect of animal grazing. Cattle, horses, and donkeys are localized in the wet/humid puna while llama, sheep and alpaca can be raised in both the wet and drier areas of the puna. The most widespread influence on the grasslands is extensive grazing combined with the effects of fire. Grazing dries out the land, making it more susceptible to fire. Once a land has been exposed to fire, it makes it more likely to burn again, creating a feedback loop that leads to damage of the ecosystem. Fire often accompanies grazing as a management tool and is one of the main threats to the grasslands. The drier areas are being threatened with progression to desertification. Despite the fact that the puna grasslands experience heavy grazing, as an ecosystem it is highly resilient. In these areas of high grazing, successional species of grass and forbs grow back thick, thereby preserving the soil which means its potential to rebound is higher. The grasslands are also influenced more locally by agriculture, mining, and waste disposal depending on the concentration of the population. There are two predominant forms of management of the puna grazing lands. The first is communal. In this form of management, the community controls the land and every member of that community grazes livestock. This generally leads to
overgrazing Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature res ...
and degradation of the land. The second style of management is cooperative. This type of management originated from a movement that took land from large landholders and turned it over to council composed of workers. Agronomists and animal scientists see over the land and make sure the grazing is sustainable. Though there are a significant number of problems in puna grasslands, mostly being attributed to overgrazing, there are measures being taken to improve the current situation. These impact measures are minimal however, since the ratio of protected areas to the rest of the ecosystem is minute. A growing population, construction of new roads, and mining activities are all acting as hindrances to the conservation of the ecosystem. Luckily, awareness is being raised about the problem, and steps are being taken to help improve its preservation. Currently range management programs are being introduced in many of the neighboring universities to research new ideas that implement little technology and can help restore the ecosystem. With the right management, the puna grasslands can rebound and support the growing populations of the surrounding areas. Ultimately however, it is up to the local individuals of the area to coordinate other ways they can receive income in ways that does not harm the land.


Overview

Andean Continental Divide


See also

* Climate zones by altitude *
Altitudinal zonation Altitudinal zonation (or elevational zonation) in mountainous regions describes the natural layering of ecosystems that occurs at distinct elevations due to varying environmental conditions. Temperature, humidity, soil composition, and solar r ...
*
Puna de Atacama The Puna de Atacama or Atacama Plateau''Atacama Plateau''
article at the ''