Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the
head of government In the Executive (government), executive branch, the head of government is the highest or the second-highest official of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presid ...
of the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
. The prime minister advises the
sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...
on the exercise of much of the
royal prerogative The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, Privilege (law), privilege, and immunity recognised in common law (and sometimes in Civil law (legal system), civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy) as belonging to the monarch, so ...
, chairs the Cabinet, and selects its ministers. Modern prime ministers hold office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
, so they are invariably members of Parliament. The office of prime minister is not established by any statute or constitutional document, but exists only by long-established convention, whereby the monarch appoints as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons. In practice, this is the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in the Commons. The prime minister is ''
ex officio An ''ex officio'' member is a member of a body (notably a board, committee, or council) who is part of it by virtue of holding another office. The term '' ex officio'' is Latin, meaning literally 'from the office', and the sense intended is 'by r ...
'' also
First Lord of the Treasury The First Lord of the Treasury is the head of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury exercising the ancient office of Lord High Treasurer in the United Kingdom. Traditional convention holds that the office of First Lord is held by the Prime Mi ...
(prior to 1905 also the official title of the position),
Minister for the Civil Service In the Government of the United Kingdom, the Minister for the Civil Service is responsible for regulations regarding His Majesty's Civil Service, the role of which is to assist the governments of the United Kingdom in formulating and implementi ...
, the minister responsible for
national security National security, or national defence (national defense in American English), is the security and Defence (military), defence of a sovereign state, including its Citizenship, citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of ...
, and
Minister for the Union The Minister for the Union is a position in the United Kingdom which is held concurrently with the post of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister. History The position was created by Boris Johnson during his first Johnson minis ...
. The prime minister's official residence and office is
10 Downing Street 10 Downing Street in London is the official residence and office of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, prime minister of the United Kingdom. Colloquially known as Number 10, the building is located in Downing Street, off Whitehall in th ...
in London. Early conceptions of the office of prime minister evolved as the ''
primus inter pares is a Latin phrase meaning first among equals. It is typically used as an honorary title for someone who is formally equal to other members of their group but is accorded unofficial respect, traditionally owing to their seniority in office. H ...
'' ("first among equals"); however that does not differentiate on status and responsibility upon whoever is holding office. Historically, the prime minister has never been the first among equals at any time prior to 1868. Until now, that characterisation of the prime minister is reflective of the democratic nature of their position. The power of the prime minister depends on the support of their respective party and on the popular mandate. The appointment of cabinet ministers and granting of
honours Honour (Commonwealth English) or honor (American English; see spelling differences) is a quality of a person that is of both social teaching and personal ethos, that manifests itself as a code of conduct, and has various elements such as valo ...
are done through the prime minister's
power of appointment A power of appointment is a term most frequently used in the law of wills to describe the ability of the testator (the person writing the will) to select a person who will be given the authority to dispose of certain property under the will. Alt ...
. The prime minister alongside the cabinet proposes new legislation and decides on key policies that fit their agenda which are then passed by an act of parliament. The power of the office of prime minister has grown significantly since the first prime minister,
Robert Walpole Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford (; 26 August 1676 – 18 March 1745), known between 1725 and 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British Whigs (British political party), Whig statesman who is generally regarded as the ''de facto'' first Prim ...
in 1721. Prime ministerial power evolved gradually alongside the office itself which have played an increasingly prominent role in British politics since the early 20th century. During the premierships of
Margaret Thatcher Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher (; 13 October 19258 April 2013), was a British stateswoman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of th ...
and
Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He was Leader ...
, prime ministerial power expanded substantially, and their leaderships in the office were described as "presidential" due to their personal wielding of power and tight control over the cabinet. The prime minister is one of the world's most powerful political leaders in modern times. As the leader of the world's sixth largest economy, the prime minister holds significant domestic and international leadership, being the leader of a prominent member state of
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...
, the G7 and G20. 58 people (55 men and 3 women) have served as prime minister, the first of whom was
Robert Walpole Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford (; 26 August 1676 – 18 March 1745), known between 1725 and 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British Whigs (British political party), Whig statesman who is generally regarded as the ''de facto'' first Prim ...
taking office on 3 April 1721. The longest-serving prime minister was also Walpole, who served over 20 years, and the shortest-serving was
Liz Truss Mary Elizabeth Truss (born 26 July 1975) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from September to October 2022. On her fiftieth da ...
, who served seven weeks.
Keir Starmer Sir Keir Rodney Starmer (born 2 September 1962) is a British politician and lawyer who has served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since 2024 and as Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party since 2020. He previously ...
succeeded
Rishi Sunak Rishi Sunak (born 12 May 1980) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from 2022 to 2024. Following his defeat to Keir Starmer's La ...
as prime minister on 5 July 2024, following the 2024 general election.


History


Origins: 1689–1742

The position of prime minister was not created but evolved slowly and organically over three hundred years due to numerous Acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. Therefore, the office is rarely found in any statute and according to the Political and Constitutional Reform Committee in 2014: "It is impossible to point to a single point in history when the post was created or even a decision to create it." The 17th century saw a transformative period in British history. The Union of the Scottish and English crowns followed by the
Wars of the Three Kingdoms The Wars of the Three Kingdoms were a series of conflicts fought between 1639 and 1653 in the kingdoms of Kingdom of England, England, Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland and Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland, then separate entities in a personal union un ...
, including the
English Civil War The English Civil War or Great Rebellion was a series of civil wars and political machinations between Cavaliers, Royalists and Roundhead, Parliamentarians in the Kingdom of England from 1642 to 1651. Part of the wider 1639 to 1653 Wars of th ...
, saw the final conflict between the
Monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...
and the parliaments (of
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
and
Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
) over governance, culminating in the end of absolute monarchy with the
execution of Charles I Charles_I_of_England, Charles I, King of Kingdom of England, England, Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, and Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland, was executed on Tuesday, 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House on Whitehall, London. The execution was ...
in 1649. In 1660, the Monarchy was restored with the ascension of Charles II signalling a return to royal rule but with growing limitations. The
Glorious Revolution The Glorious Revolution, also known as the Revolution of 1688, was the deposition of James II and VII, James II and VII in November 1688. He was replaced by his daughter Mary II, Mary II and her Dutch husband, William III of Orange ...
of 1688–1689 led to the deposition of the
Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
James II and the establishment of William III and
Mary II Mary II (30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694) was List of English monarchs, Queen of England, List of Scottish monarchs, Scotland, and Monarchy of Ireland, Ireland with her husband, King William III and II, from 1689 until her death in 1694. Sh ...
as constitutional monarchs. After a series of bills passed by the parliaments, such as the
Bill of Rights A bill of rights, sometimes called a declaration of rights or a charter of rights, is a list of the most important rights to the citizens of a country. The purpose is to protect those rights against infringement from public officials and pri ...
and Claim of Right in 1689, the powers of the monarch were reduced, being replaced by the powers of parliament. The Bill of Rights established the supremacy of Parliament over
the Crown The Crown is a political concept used in Commonwealth realms. Depending on the context used, it generally refers to the entirety of the State (polity), state (or in federal realms, the relevant level of government in that state), the executive ...
and set up certain civil rights. During this period, Parliaments were dominated by two political factions: the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs supported
parliamentary sovereignty Parliamentary sovereignty, also called parliamentary supremacy or legislative supremacy, is a concept in the constitutional law of some parliamentary democracies. It holds that the legislative body has absolute sovereignty and is supreme over al ...
and
constitutional monarchy Constitutional monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in making decisions. ...
while the Tories favoured the divine right of kings and the deposed James II. These two groups were considered by some to be "embryonic political parties." The resulting English Constitution established in 1689 gave the English Parliament the power over the "purse" or the
Treasury A treasury is either *A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry; in a business context, corporate treasury. *A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be ...
. The monarch who now could commit to and follow agreed policy allowed Parliament to pursue and fund its own policies without any fear of diversion of the funds. By this point, the Monarch was forced by incentive to cede power to Parliament under the credible threat of removal of any who ignored the Constitution. Acts of Union in 1707 formed the
Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain, also known as the Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in Western Europe from 1707 to the end of 1800. The state was created by the 1706 Treaty of Union and ratified by the Acts of Union 1707, which united the Kingd ...
, with the
Parliament of Great Britain The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in May 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union 1707, Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The Acts ratified the treaty of Union which created a ...
the head of Treasury, as
Lord Treasurer The Lord High Treasurer was an English government position and has been a British government position since the Acts of Union of 1707. A holder of the post would be the third-highest-ranked Great Officer of State in England, below the Lord ...
, was given the power following Standing Order Number 66 to draft money bills (budgets) instead of MPs outside of government. The informal term 'prime minister' was first recorded around that time, which since 1721 had mostly also been the office holder for the
First Lord of the Treasury The First Lord of the Treasury is the head of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury exercising the ancient office of Lord High Treasurer in the United Kingdom. Traditional convention holds that the office of First Lord is held by the Prime Mi ...
. The First Lord of the Treasury is one of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury. This role is usually held by the Prime Minister. The role of prime minister grew more distinct as the head of government and often more recognisable within the public than other members of the cabinet, which demonstrates the increasing power of the prime minister in modern times than that originally created. Following the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Parliament invited George Louis, Prince Elector of Hanover, to become king. During his reign, he was unpopular partly due to his limited English proficiency and lack of interest in governing, a role he largely left to his ministers. In 1720, the
South Sea bubble South is one of the cardinal directions or compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both west and east. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Proto-Germanic ''*sunþa ...
, a financial crisis stemming from speculative investments, led to economic turmoil. The collapse implicated many government officials. With schisms within the Whigs Party led to the fall of Stanhope–Sunderland ministry. Subsequently, Sir Robert Walpole, who was serving as
Paymaster General His Majesty's Paymaster General or HM Paymaster General is a ministerial position in the Cabinet Office of the United Kingdom. The position is currently held by Nick Thomas-Symonds of the Labour Party (UK), Labour Party. History The post was ...
, was appointed First Lord of the Treasury in 1721. Sir Robert Walpole was the first prime minister of the United Kingdom, though his predecessors as First Lord of the Treasury also held a similar position. Walpole is considered the first "de facto prime minister" due to his influence over policy and control of government affairs. He was not, in the modern sense, "prime minister". This was due to the position being not formally recognised by any legal fixture and also due to the position originally being used as a term of abuse. Walpole served as prime minister from 1721 to 1742. The time during his premiership was dubbed by historians as the " Robinocracy". His financial abilities in handling the repercussions in the aftermath of the South Sea Bubble earned him the support of commercial and landed interests, pursued a largely peaceful foreign policy, lowered taxes and reduced national debt while his skilful management of Commons affairs solidified his dominance in Parliament by operating as a "Screen-Master General", pulling strings and sullying favour whenever necessary. Walpole's policy was to maintain the status quo and despite not passing any major reforms, Walpole provided the country with much-needed stability after a century of turmoil. His time in office was crucial in shifting political power to the
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
and laying the foundations for the modern Cabinet system. Despite being able to successfully hold power for 20 years, Walpole faced fierce opposition over alleged bribery and corruption in Parliament and following a disastrous war with Spain, he resigned in 1742 and was succeeded by the Earl of Wilmington.


Development: 1742–1945

Following the resignation of Walpole, a swift string of ministries followed and between 1742 and 1760 there were five separate governments. Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington was made prime minister. However, Wilmington served for a brief time and was head of government by name only. The government continued to be dominated by internal struggles over Britain's participation in the
War of the Austrian Succession The War of the Austrian Succession was a European conflict fought between 1740 and 1748, primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italian Peninsula, Italy, the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Related conflicts include King Ge ...
and royal intervention in policy making. In 1743,
Henry Pelham Henry Pelham (25 September 1694 – 6 March 1754) was a British Whig statesman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1743 until his death in 1754. He was the younger brother of Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, who serv ...
became prime minister and sought to expel ministers, particularly Lord Carteret, who sought undermine the authority of the new ministry.


Powers and authority


Executive powers

The prime minister is the head of the
United Kingdom government His Majesty's Government, abbreviated to HM Government or otherwise UK Government, is the central executive authority of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
. As such, the modern prime minister leads the Cabinet (the Executive). In addition, the prime minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons (the lower chamber of Parliament). The incumbent wields both significant legislative and executive powers. Under the British system, there is a unity of powers rather than separation. John Morley described the office of prime minister as the "keystone of the Cabinet arch" that maintained while the prime minister can hold significant power over the executive, it is often exercised collectively through the Cabinet (government). Ministerial responsibility is also an aspect of a prime minister's executive authority. The prime minister leads the cabinet which makes the holder of that office bear responsibility for the collective conduct of the government. Professor Rodney Brazier points out that the since the prime minister wields significant sway over policy, that power must be subjected to the conclusion and input of Cabinet ministers. This prevents the office of prime minister from becoming more dominant and also ensures that executive power is authorised with broader support from and within the government. The prime minister must constantly maintain the confidence of the House of Commons because, as Bagehot notes, the power of the prime minister derives from their ability to command a majority in the House to pass legislation and continue the functions of government. If a prime minister loses the confidence of the House, which occurs in a vote of no confidence, they are often expected to resign from office or request the monarch dissolve parliament to call a general election. The prime minister acts as the principal advisor to the monarch, who is the head of state, a capacity that has evolved gradually during the history of the office. Bagehot says that despite the monarch holding certain theoretical executive powers, in practice, these powers are often executed upon the advice and recommendation of the prime minister and the cabinet. This is considered a major principle of the "unity of powers" that exists within a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch "reigns but does not rule". According to Brazier, the prime minister advises the monarch on matters such as the dissolution of parliament and appointments to the House of Lords, but these decisions are often made with the consent of parliament. The prime minister leads the executive in directing government policy and maintaining coordination between government departments which is dependent upon the cooperation and consent of ministers. Foreign policy and national security are areas in which the prime minister has traditionally enjoyed more authority under what are known as prerogative powers. Vernon Bogdanor argues that the abilities to declare war, negotiate treaties and deploy the armed forces have historically been part of the monarch's royal authority but have slowly evolved into a function of the office of prime minister. Despite this, the exercise of the prime minister's prerogative powers in these matters is under the oversight of parliament. It is often by convention that a prime minister must seek the approval of parliament before committing the nation to military action. In addition to this, the prime minister also exerts informal influence over public policy. Brazier notes this is due to the prime minister often being the leader of the largest party in government, therefore having a direct impact in initiating policy both in government and during election campaigns.


Legislative powers

In the House of Commons, the prime minister guides the law-making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. In an executive capacity, the prime minister appoints (and may dismiss) all other Cabinet members and ministers, and co-ordinates the policies and activities of all government departments, and the staff of the Civil Service. The prime minister also acts as the public "face" and "voice" of His Majesty's Government, both at home and abroad. Solely upon the advice of the prime minister, the sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers, including high judicial, political, official and
Church of England The Church of England (C of E) is the State religion#State churches, established List of Christian denominations, Christian church in England and the Crown Dependencies. It is the mother church of the Anglicanism, Anglican Christian tradition, ...
ecclesiastical appointments; the conferral of peerages and some knighthoods, decorations and other important honours. Bagehot identifies the prime minister as the head of the "efficient" part of government that functions within the government to steer legislation through both Houses of Parliament. Although the prime minister does not possess the power to introduce legislation directly, their control of the cabinet and their role as leader of the largest political party in the House of Commons enables them substantial influence over any legislative agenda. Bagehot points out that this power is based on the prime minister's ability to operate the "machinery of government" that allows them to guide legislation that align with their party's political and ideological priorities. Brazier argues that the legislative power of the prime minister has greatly expanded following the post-war period and that as a result, the prime minister now directly authorises supervision over government bills and has a consequential role in the introduction of legislation. The prime minister is able to wield considerable power in the passing of legislation through their ability to manage party discipline and cohesion in voting patterns. Bogdanor states that this largely depends upon the prime minister being the leader of the largest party in the Commons, which can pass legislation without any or little resistance if they can command the confidence of the House. This aspect of prime ministerial power is informal and often carried out by the office of Whips, who makes sure that MPs remain loyal and vote on the government line. The political scientist Anthony King said that the prime minister's influence over legislation is further solidified through their ability to shape policy before it reaches Parliament. King further argued that the shaping of legislation, on many occasions, involves the collaborative efforts of cabinet ministers and civil servants, but the prime minister's approval is needed to initiate the legislative agenda. King's analysis of contemporary politics showed that some prime ministers often bypass or overrule the cabinet on traditional discussion and to push through their preferred agendas with notable cases such as Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair.


Parliamentary powers

The prime minister's influence in the
Houses of Parliament The Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is located in London, England. It is commonly called the Houses of Parliament after the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two legislative ch ...
is derived from longstanding conventions and statutes that have gradually evolved through the centuries. The office of prime minister itself is not explicitly mentioned in parliamentary law but is developed by constitutional conventions and therefore it is defined by precedent and tradition. Bogdanor notes that the prime minister's power in parliament is exhibited by their control of the executive (the Cabinet) and their ability to influence the legislative agenda. The ability of the prime minister to influence legislation, according to academic Philip Norton, is often through party discipline and having a reliable majority of MPs who vote in support of the government's priorities. Another essential part of the parliamentary powers possessed by the prime minister is determining the composition of the Cabinet. According to Professor Robert Hazell, the prime minister not only chooses cabinet members but also dictates the collective decision-making process of members as well. The prime minister most often would chair cabinet meetings and may determine their frequency, thereby controlling the agenda for policy and steering decisions in their preferred direction. Additionally, the prime minister can exercise considerable control over parliamentary time. Authors Alexander Horne and Gavin Drewry state that the prime minister uses this power through the
Leader of the House of Commons The Leader of the House of Commons is a minister of the Crown of the Government of the United Kingdom whose main role is organising government business in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons. The Leader is always a memb ...
, by which they are able to allocate time for government bills and often ensuring access to this time over private members' bills. The prime minister's parliamentary powers also extend to foreign relations. Contemporary historian Anthony Seldon says that the prime minister acts as the main representative of the government in the international sphere, including in parliament, where treaties are ratified and international commitments are debated.


Prerogative powers

The most significant powers given to the prime minister are "prerogative powers". These are a set of constitutional privileges deriving from monarchial authority that have gradually evolved into tools of executive power managed by the prime minister and the government. Bagehot famously called the British system as one where "the executive power is now yielded by the prime minister" rather than the monarch, a shift from personal to political power. Prerogative powers allow the prime minister to act without the immediate or direct consent of parliament especially in circumstances such as declaring war, deployment of troops and the granting of honours. Brazier argues that prerogative powers allow the prime minister to act within the "authority of the crown" in situations where neither convention nor statutory law applies. As noted by both Bagehot and Brazier, areas in which the prime minister authorises their given prerogative powers are matters of foreign affairs. In recent occasions, the 2003 invasion of Iraq saw Prime Minister Tony Blair deploying British troops to
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
without the immediate consent or approval of parliament. Brazier says the rise of parliamentary and public scrutiny has led to calls for reform and checks on the use of prerogative powers. The only prime minister who did not seek parliamentary or legal consent for military action was
Anthony Eden Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon (12 June 1897 – 14 January 1977) was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1955 until his resignation in 1957. Achi ...
during the
Suez Crisis The Suez Crisis, also known as the Second Arab–Israeli War, the Tripartite Aggression in the Arab world and the Sinai War in Israel, was a British–French–Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956. Israel invaded on 29 October, having done so w ...
in 1956. Professors Mark Elliot and Robert Thomas argue that prerogative powers present a constitutional anomaly in the 21st century. Both contend that such powers lack direct democratic legitimacy due to not being regulated by parliamentary statutes and raise concerns over accountability. Elliot and Thomas have pointed out that judicial intervention in cases such as Miller I and Miller II, where the
Supreme Court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
exercised scrutiny over the use of prerogative powers by the government to prorogue parliament during the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, was successful in keeping check over the authority of both the prime minister and the government. The evolving usage of prerogative powers also has signalled tension between tradition and accountability. Authors Paul Craig and Adam Tomkins state that the absence of a written constitution gives a prime minister greater leeway in employing their given prerogative powers without limits that in turn would create uncertainty although the use of such powers by the prime minister is often constrained by political convention than by law.


Constitutional background

The British system of government is based on an
uncodified constitution An uncodified constitution is a type of constitution where the fundamental rules often take the form of customs, usage, precedent and a variety of statutes and legal instruments.Johari, J. C. (2006) ''New Comparative Government'', Lotus Press, N ...
, meaning that it is not set out in any single document. The British constitution consists of many documents, and most importantly for the evolution of the office of the prime minister, it is based on customs known as constitutional conventions that became accepted practice. In 1928, Prime Minister
H. H. Asquith Herbert Henry Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith (12 September 1852 – 15 February 1928) was a British statesman and Liberal Party (UK), Liberal politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1908 to 1916. He was the last ...
described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs:
In this country we live ... under an unwritten Constitution. It is true that we have on the Statute-book great instruments like Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and ... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King, Lords and Commons. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect.
The relationships between the prime minister and the sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the prime minister's executive and legislative powers are actually
royal prerogative The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, Privilege (law), privilege, and immunity recognised in common law (and sometimes in Civil law (legal system), civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy) as belonging to the monarch, so ...
s which are still formally vested in the
sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...
, who remains the
head of state A head of state is the public persona of a sovereign state.#Foakes, Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representative of its international persona." The name given to the office of head of sta ...
. Despite its growing dominance in the constitutional hierarchy, the premiership was given little formal recognition until the 20th century; the
legal fiction A legal fiction is a construct used in the law where a thing is taken to be true, which is not in fact true, in order to achieve an outcome. Legal fictions can be employed by the courts or found in legislation. Legal fictions are different from ...
was maintained that the sovereign still governed directly. The position was first mentioned in statute only in 1917, in the schedule of the Chequers Estate Act. Increasingly during the 20th century, the office and role of prime minister featured in
statute law A statute is a law or formal written enactment of a legislature. Statutes typically declare, command or prohibit something. Statutes are distinguished from court law and unwritten law (also known as common law) in that they are the expressed wil ...
and official documents; however, the prime minister's powers and relationships with other institutions still largely continue to derive from ancient royal prerogatives and historic and modern constitutional conventions. Prime ministers continue to hold the position of
First Lord of the Treasury The First Lord of the Treasury is the head of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury exercising the ancient office of Lord High Treasurer in the United Kingdom. Traditional convention holds that the office of First Lord is held by the Prime Mi ...
and, since November 1968, that of
Minister for the Civil Service In the Government of the United Kingdom, the Minister for the Civil Service is responsible for regulations regarding His Majesty's Civil Service, the role of which is to assist the governments of the United Kingdom in formulating and implementi ...
, the latter giving them authority over the
civil service The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
. Under this arrangement, Britain might appear to have two executives: the prime minister and the sovereign. The concept of "
the Crown The Crown is a political concept used in Commonwealth realms. Depending on the context used, it generally refers to the entirety of the State (polity), state (or in federal realms, the relevant level of government in that state), the executive ...
" resolves this paradox. The Crown symbolises the state's authority to govern: to make laws and execute them, impose taxes and collect them, declare war and make peace. Before the "
Glorious Revolution The Glorious Revolution, also known as the Revolution of 1688, was the deposition of James II and VII, James II and VII in November 1688. He was replaced by his daughter Mary II, Mary II and her Dutch husband, William III of Orange ...
" of 1688, the sovereign exclusively wielded the powers of the Crown; afterwards, Parliament gradually forced monarchs to assume a neutral political position. Parliament has effectively dispersed the powers of the Crown, entrusting its authority to responsible ministers (the prime minister and Cabinet), accountable for their policies and actions to Parliament, in particular the elected
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
. Although many of the sovereign's prerogative powers are still legally intact, constitutional conventions have removed the monarch from day-to-day governance, with ministers exercising the royal prerogatives, leaving the monarch in practice with three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise and to warn.


Modern premiership


Appointment

In modern times, much of the process involving prime ministerial appointments is informally governed by constitutional conventions and with the rules and processes described by authoritative sources such as The Cabinet Manual. The prime minister is appointed by the monarch, through the exercise of the
royal prerogative The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, Privilege (law), privilege, and immunity recognised in common law (and sometimes in Civil law (legal system), civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy) as belonging to the monarch, so ...
. In the past, the monarch has used personal choice to dismiss or appoint a prime minister (the last time being in 1834), but it is now the convention that the monarch should not be drawn into party politics. Bogdanor states that throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the monarch often appointed the prime minister based on their personal preference, regardless of whether they have great or little public support. If a prime minister (incumbent or otherwise) leads their party to victory in a general election and gains an overall majority in the
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
, they will be invited by the monarch to form a new government. Following the invitation, the prime minister will be driven to
Buckingham Palace Buckingham Palace () is a royal official residence, residence in London, and the administrative headquarters of the monarch of the United Kingdom. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is often at the centre of state occasions and r ...
to meet the monarch. The meeting between the monarch and the incoming prime minister is a moment for the latter to pledge their loyalty to the monarch and be invited to form a new government. The prime minister is expected to bow before the monarch in a ceremony known as "
kissing hands To kiss hands is a constitutional term used in the United Kingdom to refer to the formal installation of the prime minister or other Crown-appointed government ministers to their office.Torrance, David. ''How Is a Prime Minister Appointed?'' ...
". Following this, the prime minister is officially appointed the head of His Majesty's government. The prime minister "...holds that position by virtue of his or her ability to command the confidence of the
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
, which in turn commands the confidence of the electorate, as expressed through a
general election A general election is an electoral process to choose most or all members of a governing body at the same time. They are distinct from By-election, by-elections, which fill individual seats that have become vacant between general elections. Gener ...
." By convention, the prime minister is also an MP and is normally the leader of the
political party A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular area's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific political ideology, ...
that commands a
majority A majority is more than half of a total; however, the term is commonly used with other meanings, as explained in the "#Related terms, Related terms" section below. It is a subset of a Set (mathematics), set consisting of more than half of the se ...
in the House of Commons.


Prime Minister's Office

The Prime Minister's Office helps the prime minister to 'establish and deliver the government's overall strategy and policy priorities, and to communicate the government's policies to Parliament, the public and international audiences'. The Prime Minister's Office is formally part of the Cabinet Office, but the boundary between its work and that of the wider Cabinet Office can be unclear; the wider Cabinet Office might carry out very similar work. Peter Hennessy has claimed that this overall arrangement means there is in fact effectively a Prime Minister's Department, though it is not called this. The Prime Minister's Office was officially created in 1916 by
David Lloyd George David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. A Liberal Party (United Kingdom), Liberal Party politician from Wales, he was known for leadi ...
during the
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, which marked the first formal recognition of the office of prime minister and established it as an independent institution from other entities within government, with staff to support the coordination of government policy. This development came as a response to the demands of wartime governance, as Lloyd George's leadership needed a more centred and efficient executive function.


Prime Minister's Questions

Prime Minister's Questions is a constitutional convention, currently held as a single session every Wednesday at noon when the
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
is sitting, in which the prime minister answers questions from members of Parliament (MPs). The leader of the opposition usually asks the prime minister six questions, and the leader of the third-largest parliamentary party can ask two questions. It is an occasion when the prime minister appears regularly on live television and radio. Before the 1880s, oral questions were mainly directed towards cabinet ministers and therefore such questions were regarded as the same even when addressed to the Prime Minister. The session in its modern form was first introduced on Tuesday 24 October in 1961 when the then prime minister
Harold Macmillan Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986), was a British statesman and Conservative Party (UK), Conservative politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963. Nickn ...
answered questions for between 15 minutes from 3.15 pm to 3.30 pm as an experiment. Since 1997 PMQs were held every Wednesdays at 3 pm until 3.30 pm. In 1989, the first PMQs were broadcast and in 1990 were broadcast live to the public as a step towards transparency and accountability. The timing of PMQs has often changed depending on the varied schedules of prime ministers. In 1881, questions addressed to the prime minister were placed at the end of question time so that the then 72-year-old Prime Minister William Gladstone could arrive late. In 1904, questions were answered only when they reached No 51 and in 1940 they were expanded to No 45. The procedure was in practice until 1953 when PMQs were restricted to Tuesdays and Thursdays only to assist Winston Churchill who was 78-years old. The prime minister also appears before the Liaison Committee to answer questions about public policy.


Security and transport

The personal protection of the prime minister and former prime ministers is the responsibility of
Protection Command The Protection Command is one of the commands within the Specialist Operations directorate of London's Metropolitan Police Service. The command specialises in protective security and has two branches: Royalty and Specialist Protection (RaSP), pr ...
within the Metropolitan Police Service. When the prime minister resides in 10 Downing Street, they are constantly surrounded by armed police units with "airport-style" security checkpoints, large metal gates, street patrols and heavy vetting for staff and non-ministerial individuals. Such installations were introduced due to fears of IRA bomb threats and attacks which were persistent during
The Troubles The Troubles () were an ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland that lasted for about 30 years from the late 1960s to 1998. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it began in the late 1960s and is usually deemed t ...
. When travelling, the prime minister will be accompanied by a select group of police officers joined by a wider team of security personnel. On the road, the prime ministerial entourage will be followed by police outriders on motorbikes to clear a path in the traffic and to stop them from being a sitting target. The fleet of prime ministerial cars provides the prime minister with a number of security features as well as transport. The vehicles are driven by officers from this unit. These vehicles are often custom made and always British manufactured with in-built gun ports, an independent oxygen supply and the ability to release tear gas to subdue crowds. Air transport for the prime minister is provided by a variety of military and civilian operators.


International role

One of the roles of the prime minister is to represent the UK at home and abroad, for example at the annual G7 Summit. The prime minister makes many international trips. According to
Gus O'Donnell Augustine Thomas O'Donnell, Baron O'Donnell, (born 1 October 1952) is a former British senior civil servant and economist, who between 2005 and 2011 (under three Prime Ministers) served as the Cabinet Secretary, the highest official in the Br ...
, the number of overseas visits for the prime minister has gone up.


Deputy

Prime ministers have had various deputies, sometimes as an official deputy prime minister,
first secretary of state First Secretary of State is an office that is sometimes held by a minister of the Crown Minister of the Crown is a formal constitutional term used in Commonwealth realms to describe a minister of the reigning sovereign or viceroy. The term ...
or ''de facto'' deputy. Some prime ministers have not chosen a deputy at all, preferring ''ad hoc'' arrangements. Historically, the position of deputy prime minister has been created out of political necessity rather than being established by statutory law or convention with the title not being defined in the constitution. The position was first created (unofficially) for
Clement Attlee Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee (3 January 18838 October 1967) was a British statesman who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. At ...
in prime minister
Winston Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, military officer, and writer who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 (Winston Churchill in the Second World War, ...
's ministry during
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, to manage administrative duties, domestic affairs and welfare, while Churchill focused on military strategy. In recent times, after the 2010 general election resulted in a
hung parliament A hung parliament is a term used in legislatures primarily under the Westminster system (typically employing Majoritarian representation, majoritarian electoral systems) to describe a situation in which no single political party or pre-existing ...
, the leaders of the
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
and the Liberal Democrats,
David Cameron David William Donald Cameron, Baron Cameron of Chipping Norton (born 9 October 1966) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2016. Until 2015, he led the first coalition government in the UK s ...
and
Nick Clegg Sir Nicholas William Peter Clegg (born 7 January 1967) is a British retired politician and media executive who served as Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2015 and as Leader of the Liberal Democrats from 2007 to 2015. H ...
, formed a
coalition government A coalition government, or coalition cabinet, is a government by political parties that enter into a power-sharing arrangement of the executive. Coalition governments usually occur when no single party has achieved an absolute majority after an ...
in which Clegg served as deputy prime minister. In that capacity, Clegg chaired cabinet meetings, key committees and led negotiations on major reforms. As such, the office saw an unusual level of formalisation and recognition during Clegg's tenure.


Succession

Nobody has the right of automatic succession to the prime ministership. It is generally considered that in the event of the death of the prime minister, it would be appropriate to appoint an interim prime minister, though there is some debate as to how to decide who this should be. According to
Rodney Brazier Rodney Brazier MVO, LLD, FRHistS (born 1946) is emeritus professor of constitutional law at the University of Manchester and a barrister and an emeritus bencher of Lincoln's Inn. His expertise on the British constitution has been provided to ...
, there are no procedures within government to cope with the sudden death of the prime minister. There is also no such title as acting prime minister of the United Kingdom. Despite refusing "...to discuss a hypothetical situation" with
BBC News BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs in the UK and around the world. The department is the world's largest broad ...
in 2011, the
Cabinet Office The Cabinet Office is a Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom, ministerial department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for supporting the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, prime minister and Cabinet ...
said the following in 2006:Additionally, when the prime minister is travelling, it is standard practice for a senior duty minister to be appointed who can attend to urgent business and meetings if required, though the prime minister remains in charge and updated throughout. On 6 April 2020, when
Boris Johnson Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson (born 19 June 1964) is a British politician and writer who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from 2019 to 2022. He wa ...
was admitted into the Intensive Care Unit of St Thomas' Hospital, when suffering from COVID-19, he asked Dominic Raab "to deputise for him where necessary".


Resignation

A prime minister ends their tenure by offering their resignation to the British monarch. This can happen after their party has suffered a general election defeat, so that they no longer command the confidence of the House of Commons. It can also happen mid-term, if they are forced to resign for political reasons, or for other reasons such as ill-health. If the prime minister resigns mid-term, and their party has a majority in the Commons, the party selects a new leader according to its rules, and this new leader is invited by the monarch to become the new prime minister. The outgoing prime minister is likely to remain in post until the new leader has been chosen by the party. After resigning, the outgoing prime minister remains a member of Parliament. An outgoing prime minister can ask the monarch to bestow honours on any number of people of their choosing, known as the Prime Minister's Resignation Honours. No incumbent prime minister has ever lost their own seat at a general election. Only one prime minister has been assassinated: Spencer Perceval, in 1812.


Privileges

On taking office a new prime minister usually makes a public statement to announce to the country that they have been appointed by the reigning monarch (called "
kissing hands To kiss hands is a constitutional term used in the United Kingdom to refer to the formal installation of the prime minister or other Crown-appointed government ministers to their office.Torrance, David. ''How Is a Prime Minister Appointed?'' ...
"). This is usually done by saying words to the effect of:


Precedence and form of address

Ministerial listings are printed in the official records of parliament known as "Hansard", and 1885 was the first known instance of official use of the title of prime minister. The minutes of the first meeting of the Committee of Imperial Defence in 1902 saw the first internal reference to the title as well. The 1904 edition of the Imperial Calendar referred to the then prime minister, Arthur Balfour, as 'Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury'; in the previous edition he was merely 'First Lord of the Treasury and Lord Privy Seal'. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
Open Government Licence v3.0
Crown copyright.
Throughout the United Kingdom, the prime minister outranks all other dignitaries except members of the royal family, the
lord chancellor The Lord Chancellor, formally titled Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior minister of the Crown within the Government of the United Kingdom. The lord chancellor is the minister of justice for England and Wales and the highest-ra ...
, and senior ecclesiastical figures. The prime minister was officially granted a place in the order of precedence in December 1905, and the first statutory reference to the Prime Minister was present in the Chequers Estate Act 1917, which specified Chequers as a prime-ministerial residence. Public recognition of the existence of a 'Prime Minister's Office' in the Civil Service Yearbook came as recently as the 1977 edition. The prime minister is customarily a member of the Privy Council and thus entitled to the appellation "
The Right Honourable ''The Right Honourable'' (abbreviation: The Rt Hon. or variations) is an honorific Style (form of address), style traditionally applied to certain persons and collective bodies in the United Kingdom, the former British Empire, and the Commonwealt ...
". Membership of the Council is retained for life. It is a constitutional convention that only a privy counsellor can be appointed prime minister. Most potential candidates have already attained this status. The only case when a non-privy counsellor was the natural appointment was
Ramsay MacDonald James Ramsay MacDonald (; 12 October 18669 November 1937) was a British statesman and politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The first two of his governments belonged to the Labour Party (UK), Labour Party, where he led ...
in 1924. The issue was resolved by appointing him to the Council immediately prior to his appointment as prime minister. According to the now-defunct Department for Constitutional Affairs, the prime minister is made a privy counsellor as a result of taking office and should be addressed by the official title prefixed by "The Right Honourable" and not by a personal name. Although this form of address is employed on formal occasions, it is rarely used by the media. As "prime minister" is a position, not a title, the incumbent should be referred to as "the prime minister", although the title "Prime Minister" (e.g. "Prime Minister Keir Starmer") has become commonplace within current political reporting. Within the UK, the expression "Prime Minister Starmer" is never used, although it, too, is sometimes used by foreign dignitaries and news sources.


Compensation

In 2010, the prime minister received £14,500 in addition to a salary of £65,737 as a member of parliament. Until 2006, the
lord chancellor The Lord Chancellor, formally titled Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior minister of the Crown within the Government of the United Kingdom. The lord chancellor is the minister of justice for England and Wales and the highest-ra ...
was the highest-paid member of the government, ahead of the prime minister. This reflected the lord chancellor's position at the head of the judicial pay scale. The
Constitutional Reform Act 2005 The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (c. 4) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, relevant to UK constitutional law. It provides for a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to take over the previous appellate jurisdiction of the Law ...
eliminated the lord chancellor's judicial functions and also reduced the office's salary to below that of the prime minister. During the premiership of Gordon Brown, the prime minister received a salary of £193,885 on 1 April 2009 which was higher than the salary of £166,786 as of 2024. The reasons for such reductions are Brown's cuts to voluntary pay at around £150,000 during pre-election in the May 2010 election, and when David Cameron became prime minister the cuts were extended to 5%, amounting at around £142,500. Subsequent prime ministers have kept the restraint on ministerial pay and have not taken any further pay outside of what they are entitled. According to journalist Simon Kelner, the salary of the prime minister must be increased and that further expansion of a salary or hospitality received by a prime minister is disavowed under the
Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 The Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 ( 46 & 47 Vict. c. 51) or the Corrupt Practices Act 1883 was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was a continuation of policy to make voters free ...
which only criminalised voter bribery and introduced standards for election expenses, and "created a more level playing field for parliamentary candidates". Kelner said that it is a inadequate way of holding a prime minister into account. This was in response to the 2024 Labour Party freebies controversy, in which the current prime minister,
Keir Starmer Sir Keir Rodney Starmer (born 2 September 1962) is a British politician and lawyer who has served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since 2024 and as Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party since 2020. He previously ...
, having reportedly failed to disclose the amount of gifts and "freebies" received by him, members of his family and cabinet.


Official residences

10 Downing Street, in London, has been the official place of residence of the prime minister since 1732; they are entitled to use its staff and facilities, including extensive offices. The building was originally given by King George I to Robert Walpole, the nation's first prime minister, as a personal gift. However, Walpole insisted that he would accept it in his capacity as first lord of the Treasury and requested that his subsequent successors be entitled to reside in and use the property as they wish. The complex incorporates the flats of No.11 and No.12 Downing Street, which have been reconstructed through to connect them to No.10. Altogether, the three buildings contain over 100 rooms.
Chequers Chequers ( ) is the English country house, country house of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, prime minister of the United Kingdom. A 16th-century manor house in origin, it is near the village of Ellesborough in England, halfway betwee ...
, a
country house image:Blenheim - Blenheim Palace - 20210417125239.jpg, 300px, Blenheim Palace - Oxfordshire An English country house is a large house or mansion in the English countryside. Such houses were often owned by individuals who also owned a Townhou ...
in Buckinghamshire, gifted to the government in 1917, may be used as a country retreat for the prime minister. The estate was previously owned by the
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
minister and
First Lord of the Admiralty First Lord of the Admiralty, or formally the Office of the First Lord of the Admiralty, was the title of the political head of the English and later British Royal Navy. He was the government's senior adviser on all naval affairs, responsible f ...
, Sir Arthur Lee, before being donated to the British government under the Chequers Estate Act 1917. It was to give the incumbent prime minister the time to "spend two days a week in the high and pure air of the Chiltern hills and woods" and on the condition that incumbent should not own any residential country estate of their own. During the 18th and 19th centuries, many prime ministers were members of the
British nobility The British nobility is made up of the peerage and the gentry of the British Isles. Though the UK is today a constitutional monarchy with strong democratic elements, historically the British Isles were more predisposed towards aristocratic gove ...
and therefore held the office while serving in the
House of Lords The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the lower house, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. One of the oldest ext ...
. Through lineage and inheritance, these prime ministers acquired large estates, though they still owned properties in London for political affairs and many used country houses as a retreat. Until the mid-20th Century, parliamentary sessions did not begin until the New Year after ending in August, which would give the prime minister long periods in respite.


Post-premiership


Retirement honours

Upon retirement, it is customary for the sovereign to grant a prime minister some honour or dignity. The honour bestowed is commonly, but not invariably, membership of the UK's most senior order of chivalry, the
Order of the Garter The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. The most senior order of knighthood in the Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom, British honours system, it is outranked in ...
. The practice of creating a retired prime minister a Knight Companion of the Garter (KG) has been fairly prevalent since the mid-nineteenth century. Upon the retirement of a prime minister who is Scottish, it is likely that the primarily Scottish honour of Knight of the Thistle (KT) will be used instead of the Order of the Garter, which is generally regarded as an English honour. Historically it has also been common to grant prime ministers a
peerage A peerage is a legal system historically comprising various hereditary titles (and sometimes Life peer, non-hereditary titles) in a number of countries, and composed of assorted Imperial, royal and noble ranks, noble ranks. Peerages include: A ...
upon retirement from the Commons, elevating the individual to the Lords. Formerly, the peerage bestowed was usually an
earl Earl () is a rank of the nobility in the United Kingdom. In modern Britain, an earl is a member of the Peerages in the United Kingdom, peerage, ranking below a marquess and above a viscount. A feminine form of ''earl'' never developed; instead, ...
dom. The last such creation was for
Harold Macmillan Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986), was a British statesman and Conservative Party (UK), Conservative politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963. Nickn ...
, who resigned in 1963. Unusually, he became Earl of Stockton only in 1984, over twenty years after leaving office. Macmillan's successors
Alec Douglas-Home Alexander Frederick Douglas-Home, Baron Home of the Hirsel ( ; 2 July 1903 – 9 October 1995), known as Lord Dunglass from 1918 to 1951 and the Earl of Home from 1951 to 1963, was a British statesman and Conservative Party (UK), Conservative ...
,
Harold Wilson James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx (11 March 1916 – 23 May 1995) was a British statesman and Labour Party (UK), Labour Party politician who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, from 1964 to 1970 and again from 197 ...
,
James Callaghan Leonard James Callaghan, Baron Callaghan of Cardiff ( ; 27 March 191226 March 2005) was a British statesman and Labour Party (UK), Labour Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979 and Leader of the L ...
,
Margaret Thatcher Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher (; 13 October 19258 April 2013), was a British stateswoman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of th ...
,
David Cameron David William Donald Cameron, Baron Cameron of Chipping Norton (born 9 October 1966) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2016. Until 2015, he led the first coalition government in the UK s ...
, and
Theresa May Theresa Mary May, Baroness May of Maidenhead (; ; born 1 October 1956), is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 2016 to 2019. She previously served as Home Secretar ...
all accepted
life peer In the United Kingdom, life peers are appointed members of the peerage whose titles cannot be inherited, in contrast to hereditary peers. Life peers are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister. With the exception of the D ...
ages (although Douglas-Home had previously disclaimed his hereditary title as Earl of Home and Cameron received a peerage after reentering government as Foreign Secretary, not for services as a former prime minister).
Edward Heath Sir Edward Richard George Heath (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005) was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974 and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from 1965 ...
did not accept a peerage of any kind; neither have any of the prime ministers who have retired since 1990 other than Cameron (having done so to re-join the Cabinet, rather than as an honour per se) and May. Edward Heath (in 1992),
John Major Sir John Major (born 29 March 1943) is a British retired politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. Following his defeat to Ton ...
(in 2005) and
Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He was Leader ...
(in 2022) were appointed as Knights Companion of the Garter. Major (in 1998) and
Gordon Brown James Gordon Brown (born 20 February 1951) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 to 2010. Previously, he was Chancellor of the Ex ...
(in 2024) were appointed members of the
Order of the Companions of Honour The Order of the Companions of Honour is an Order (distinction), order of the Commonwealth realms. It was founded on 4 June 1917 by King George V as a reward for outstanding achievements. It was founded on the same date as the Order of the Brit ...
, although Blair had previously disclosed that he did not want honours bestowed on himself or future prime ministers. The most recent former prime minister to die was Margaret Thatcher (1979–1990) on 8 April 2013. Her death meant that for the first time since 1955 (the year in which the Earldom of Attlee was created, subsequent to the death of Earl Baldwin in 1947) the membership of the House of Lords included no former prime minister, a situation which remained the case until David Cameron was appointed to the House in November 2023.


Activities

There are currently no established roles or job positions for former prime ministers following their resignations or after leaving office unexpectedly. It depends on their personal choice and reasons surrounding the need to take on such positions. During the 18th and 19th centuries, many former prime ministers, who were wealthy members of the
nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
, would often simply retire to their country estates. The first prime minister,
Robert Walpole Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford (; 26 August 1676 – 18 March 1745), known between 1725 and 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British Whigs (British political party), Whig statesman who is generally regarded as the ''de facto'' first Prim ...
, accumulated large personal wealth while serving in office and from previous investments made in the 1710s. Prime ministers
Lord Bute John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (; 25 May 1713 – 10 March 1792), styled Lord Mount Stuart between 1713 and 1723, was a British Tories (British political party), Tory statesman who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Prime Mini ...
and Lord Rosebery were among the wealthiest men in the country during their retirements and are often touted as some of the wealthiest to serve as in office. However some prime ministers, such as
William Pitt the Elder William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (15 November 170811 May 1778) was a British Whig statesman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1766 to 1768. Historians call him "Chatham" or "Pitt the Elder" to distinguish him from his son ...
and his son
William Pitt the Younger William Pitt (28 May 1759 – 23 January 1806) was a British statesman who served as the last prime minister of Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain from 1783 until the Acts of Union 1800, and then first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, p ...
, amassed large public debts that were later paid off by parliament. In 1937, an official pension for former prime ministers was given at the sum of £2000 per annum. In their retirements, a majority of former prime ministers have written memoirs and autobiographies. Some prime ministers have also written non-political books as well, including Winston Churchill's histories of
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
and of the English language,
Edward Heath Sir Edward Richard George Heath (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005) was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974 and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from 1965 ...
's books on his wider interests in sailing, music and travel, Major's history of cricket and Arthur Balfour's philosophical writings. Some prime ministers such as
William Gladstone William Ewart Gladstone ( ; 29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British politican, starting as Conservative MP for Newark and later becoming the leader of the Liberal Party. In a career lasting over 60 years, he was Prime Minister ...
mainly wrote tracts and tomes on theology and religion and
Benjamin Disraeli Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman, Conservative Party (UK), Conservative politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a ...
wrote many best-selling novels in addition to memoirs and history. In the 21st century, many former prime ministers have set up their own foundations and charities to be used as a platform to continue involvement in political and public issues after they leave office. In 1991,
Margaret Thatcher Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher (; 13 October 19258 April 2013), was a British stateswoman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of th ...
became the first prime minister to set up her own foundation to try to secure her legacy and propagate her ideology known as
Thatcherism Thatcherism is a form of British conservative ideology named after Conservative Party (UK), Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher that relates to not just her political platform and particular policies but also her personal character a ...
, but it closed down in 2005. Tony Blair has set up a sports foundation, an inter-faith foundation and the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change in 2016. In his post-premiership, Blair is also the first prime minister to take on a major international role, as an official envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East.
Gordon Brown James Gordon Brown (born 20 February 1951) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party (UK), Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 to 2010. Previously, he was Chancellor of the Ex ...
was actively involved in politics long after he left office, most notably during the
2014 Scottish independence referendum A independence referendum, referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom was held in Scotland on 18 September 2014. The referendum question was "Should Scotland be an independent country?", which voters answered with "Yes" or ...
, in which he campaigned for the no vote that advocated Scotland to remain in the union. However, some former prime ministers have returned to serve in the governments of their successors, and a few have had 'retreads' that saw them serve short tenures due to their successors unexpectedly resigning or passing away. Notable cases include the
Duke of Wellington Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they ar ...
who, after serving two brief terms in office, was able to command significant influence as a senior member of the Tory party and returned to serve in two governments of his successor, Sir Robert Peel, as Foreign Secretary and
Minister without portfolio A minister without portfolio is a government minister without specific responsibility as head of a government department. The sinecure is particularly common in countries ruled by coalition governments and a cabinet with decision-making authorit ...
. He later retired to serve as Commander-in-Chief of the Army from 1842 until his death in 1852. Arthur Balfour served as prime minister for three years of his term after he was defeated in the 1906 general election and later went on to serve as the Foreign Secretary for eleven years in the Imperial War Cabinet during and after
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
under three prime ministers. After
Neville Chamberlain Arthur Neville Chamberlain (; 18 March 18699 November 1940) was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940 and Leader of the Conservative Party (UK), Leader of the Conservative Party from ...
resigned as prime minister in May 1940, he returned to serve under Winston Churchill in his subsequent war cabinet.
Alec Douglas-Home Alexander Frederick Douglas-Home, Baron Home of the Hirsel ( ; 2 July 1903 – 9 October 1995), known as Lord Dunglass from 1918 to 1951 and the Earl of Home from 1951 to 1963, was a British statesman and Conservative Party (UK), Conservative ...
, who resigned after losing the 1964 general election, later came to serve in the cabinet of Edward Heath in 1970.


Public Duty Costs Allowance (PDCA)

All former prime ministers are entitled to claim for salary or office expenses incurred in fulfilling public duties in that role. The allowance may not be used to pay for private or parliamentary duties. It is administered by the Cabinet Office Finance Team. The maximum amount which may be claimed per year is £115,000, plus 10% towards any staff pension costs. This limit is reviewed annually, and at the start of each Parliament, by the current prime minister. The maximum level may be adjusted downward if the former prime minister receives any public funds for fulfilling other public appointments. Downing Street confirmed in November 2023 that former prime minister David Cameron would not claim from the PDCA while he acted as Foreign Secretary.


See also


Lists of prime ministers by different criteria

* Timeline of prime ministers of Great Britain and the United Kingdom *
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the principal minister of the crown of His Majesty's Government, and the head of the British Cabinet. There is no specific date for when the office of prime minister first appeared, as the role was ...
* List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom by length of tenure *
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom by age This is a list of prime ministers of the United Kingdom by age. This table can be sorted to display List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom, prime ministers of the United Kingdom by name, order of office, date of birth, age at appointment ...
*
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom by education A list of prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the educational institutions they attended. , of the 58 prime ministers to date, 31 were educated at the University of Oxford (including 13 at Christ Church), and 14 at the University of Cambri ...
*
List of current heads of government in the United Kingdom and dependencies In the United Kingdom, various titles are used for the head of government of each of the countries of the United Kingdom, Crown Dependencies, and British Overseas Territories, Overseas Territories. Following elections to the assembly or parliament ...
* List of fictional prime ministers of the United Kingdom * List of peerages held by prime ministers of the United Kingdom * List of United Kingdom Parliament constituencies represented by sitting prime ministers * Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom All lists: :Lists of prime ministers of the United Kingdom


Other related pages

* Air transport of the British royal family and government * Spouse of the prime minister of the United Kingdom * Records of prime ministers of the United Kingdom *
Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom The deputy prime minister of the United Kingdom is an honorific title given to a minister of the Crown and a member of the British Cabinet, normally to signify a very senior minister, the deputy leader of the governing party, or a key political ...
* Cultural depictions of prime ministers of the United Kingdom * List of things named after prime ministers of the United Kingdom * List of nicknames of prime ministers of the United Kingdom * :Books written by prime ministers of the United Kingdom * Armorial of prime ministers of the United Kingdom * List of burial places of prime ministers of the United Kingdom More related pages: :Prime ministers of the United Kingdom


Notes


References


Works cited

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Further reading

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External links


Number 10 official website

Parliament of the United Kingdom website

Principal Ministers of the Crown: 1730–2006
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