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Pillarisation (from the nl, verzuiling) is the politico-denominational segregation of a society into groups by religion and associated political beliefs. These societies were (and in some areas, still are) vertically divided into two or more groups known as pillars (Dutch: ''zuilen''). The best-known examples of this have historically occurred in the Netherlands and Belgium. Each pillar may have its own social institutions and social organizations. These may include its own newspapers, broadcasting organisations, political parties, trade unions, farmers' associations, banks, stores, schools, hospitals, universities, scouting organisations and sports clubs. Such segregation means that many people have little or no personal contact with members of other pillars.


Netherlands

The Netherlands had at least three pillars, namely
Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
,
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
and social-democratic. Pillarisation was originally initiated by Abraham Kuyper and his Christian Democratic and
neo-Calvinist Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is a theological movement initiated by the theologian and former Dutch prime minister Abraham Kuyper. James Bratt has identified a number of different types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders, split into ...
('' gereformeerd'') Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP) in the late 19th century; it was part of its philosophy of sphere sovereignty. The Catholic pillar had the highest degree of organisation, because Catholic clergy promoted the organisation of Catholics in confessional institutions. Yet, the conservative Protestant pillar and the Socialist pillar, which mainly consisted of industrial workers, were nearly as tightly knit. The Protestant ('' hervormd'') Christian Historical Union (CHU) (formed in 1908) did not organise a pillar of its own but linked to the Protestant pillar shaped by the ARP. People who were not associated with one of these pillars, mainly middle- and upper-class
latitudinarian Latitudinarians, or latitude men, were initially a group of 17th-century English theologiansclerics and academicsfrom the University of Cambridge who were moderate Anglicans (members of the Church of England). In particular, they believed that ...
Protestants and atheists, arguably set up their own pillar: the liberal or "general" pillar. Ties between general organisations were much weaker than within the other three pillars. Liberals rejected the voluntary segregation of the society, and denied the existence of a "liberal pillar". The political parties usually associated with this group were the Free-minded Democratic League (VDB) and Liberal State Party (LSP). Communists,
Humanists Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "human ...
, and ultra-orthodox Protestant fundamentalists also set up similar organisations; however, such groups were much smaller. The development of pillarisation in the Netherlands was favoured by the emancipation of working and lower-middle classes on the one hand, and the execution of elite control on the other hand. The emancipation of the working class led to the establishment of socialist parties, trade unions, media, cooperative shops and collectively organised leisure activities. This "full care" of the socialist movement for its members existed similarly in other European countries. The emancipation of the conservative and often strongly religious lower-middle class fostered the emergence of the Protestant pillar. While the Dutch bourgeoisie was rather liberal and adhered to "enlightened" Protestantism, a large part of the lower-middle class embraced a more orthodox Calvinist theology, as taught by preacher and politician Abraham Kuyper. In 1866 Kuyper founded the ''gereformeerd'' ("reformed") current of Protestantism; it was both more conservative and more popular with ordinary people than the established Protestant churches in the Netherlands. Kuyper's worldview asserted the principle of "sphere sovereignty", rejecting both ecclesiasticism (rule of the Church over all parts of the society) and statist secularism (rule of the state over all parts of the society). He argued that both had their own spheres in which the other was not to interfere. In 1879 he founded the Anti-Revolutionary Party as the political wing of his religious movement and core of the Protestant pillar. At the same time, new and old elites tried to maintain their control over the newly emancipated social groups. For instance, the Catholic clergy set up confessional unions to prevent Catholic workers from joining socialist unions. One reason behind the formation of Christian parties was to counter the feared rise of left-wing mass parties.


Institutions by pillar

The following table shows the most important institutions by pillar:


Depillarisation

After
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
(during which even the Dutch resistance was pillarised) liberals and socialists, but also Protestants and Catholics, began to doubt the pillarised system. They founded a unity movement, the People's Movement ''
Nederlandse Volksbeweging The Nederlandse Volksbeweging (NVB, English: "Dutch People's Movement") was a political reform movement established in the Netherlands in 1945, immediately after the Second World War. The idea to found the movement originated during the war in a gr ...
''. Progressives of all pillars (including the Catholic resistance movement '' Christofoor'') were united in the aim to renew the political system ('' doorbraak'', "breakthrough"). But pillarisation was ingrained in Dutch society, and could not be defeated that easily. In order to force this breakthrough, the socialist Social Democratic Workers' Party, the left-liberal VDB and the Christian-socialist CDU united to form the PvdA, a progressive party, which was open to all people. The new party did not, however, gain enough support under Catholics or Reformed, and the PvdA became encapsulated in the socialist pillar. Television broadcasting was also pillarised, but everyone watched the same broadcasts nonetheless, since initially only one channel was available in the Netherlands in the 1950s. During the 1960s the pillars largely broke down, particularly under political criticism from D66 and the group ' (New Left) in PvdA. Because of this and of increased mobility, many people could see that people from the other pillars were not that different from themselves. Increased wealth and education made people independent of many of the pillarised institutions, and young people did not want to be associated with these organisations anymore. In 1973, two main Protestant parties, ARP and CHU, merged with the Catholic KVP to form the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA). They first participated in the 1977 general elections. In 1976, the Catholic trade union (NKV) started to cooperate with the trade union of the Socialist pillar (NVV), to merge into the Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging (FNV) in 1982. The pillarisation of society has not fully disappeared, and many remnants can still be seen in the 21st century: public television, for instance, is still divided among several organisations, instead of being one organisation. The Netherlands has both public and religious schools, a divide which is also inherited from pillarisation. Moreover, some communities continue to behave as small "pillars" , although rather than forming the structure of society (a pillar), this currently moves them outside the mainstream of society. Members of the Reformed Churches (liberated) have their own (primary and secondary) schools, their own national newspaper, and some other organisations, such as a labour union. Members of several pietist Reformed Churches have also founded their own schools, newspaper and political party. Increasingly, Muslim immigrants in the Netherlands are also using the legal possibilities created for the pillarised structure of society, by setting up their own schools.


Belgium

Apart from having no Protestant pillar, pillarisation in Belgium was very similar to that in Netherlands. There was also no "general" pillar, but a politically well-organised liberal pillar. In 1911, the British sociologist Seebohm Rowntree noted that in Belgium: In both
Flanders Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to cultu ...
and
Wallonia Wallonia (; french: Wallonie ), or ; nl, Wallonië ; wa, Waloneye or officially the Walloon Region (french: link=no, Région wallonne),; nl, link=no, Waals gewest; wa, link=no, Redjon walone is one of the three regions of Belgium—al ...
, societies were pillarised between Catholic and Liberal political denominations which were subsequently joined by a Socialist pillar. Even though the liberals were stronger in Belgium (particularly in
Brussels Brussels (french: Bruxelles or ; nl, Brussel ), officially the Brussels-Capital Region (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) (french: link=no, Région de Bruxelles-Capitale; nl, link=no, Bruss ...
) than in the Netherlands, they were still relatively weak, owing to their rather small, bourgeois support: liberal trade unions were very small. '' De Tijd'', a financial daily, is the newspaper aligned with the liberals, as its readership consists mainly of liberal supporters. However, a Flemish newspaper with historical liberal roots, '' Het Laatste Nieuws'', also exists. Denominational (many Catholic and a few Jewish) schools receive some public money, although not parity of funding as in the Netherlands, so that tuition is almost completely free. Belgian universities charge more or less the same, relatively low, tuition fees. As a consequence of the language struggle in the latter half of the twentieth century, the pillars split over the language issue, which became the most significant divisive factor in the nation. Now every language group has three pillars of its own. The pillar system remained to be the primordial societal dividing force much longer than it was in the Netherlands. Only near the end of the
Cold War The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because t ...
did it begin to lose importance, at least at the individual level, and to this day it continues to influence Belgian society. For example, even the 1999–2003 " Rainbow Coalition" of Guy Verhofstadt was often rendered with the terms of pillarisation. The political movements that appeared in the late 20th century (such as Vlaams Blok, now Vlaams Belang; Groen!; and N-VA) did not attempt to build pillars. Pillarisation was visible even in everyday social organisations such as musical ensembles, sport clubs, recreational facilities, etc. Weakened in the current situation, many major social organisations (trade unions, cooperatives, etc.) still strictly follow the lines of pillars though.


Institutions by pillar with their ethnic divisions

The following table is limited to the most important institutions and it shows the current division of everyone by the three ethnic groups. {, class="wikitable" !style="text-align:left",   !
Flemish Flemish (''Vlaams'') is a Low Franconian dialect cluster of the Dutch language. It is sometimes referred to as Flemish Dutch (), Belgian Dutch ( ), or Southern Dutch (). Flemish is native to Flanders, a historical region in northern Belgium; ...
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
! Walloon Catholic !
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
Catholic !Flemish
Socialist Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the ...
!Walloon Socialist !German Socialist !Flemish Liberal !Walloon Liberal !German Liberal , - ! , colspan="3" style="background-color:orange;" , , colspan="3" style="background-color:red;" , , colspan="3" style="background-color:blue;" , , - style="vertical-align:top;text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:left", Political parties before 1945 , colspan="3" , Catholic Party (until 1936)
Catholic Bloc (since 1936) , rowspan="2" colspan="3" , Belgian Labour Party (BWP/POB) , rowspan="2" colspan="3" , Liberal Party , - ,
Catholic Flemish People's Party The Catholic Flemish People's Party ( nl, Katholieke Vlaamse Volkspartij, KVV) was a political party within the Catholic Block in Belgium from 1936 until 1945. History The party was formed in 1936 following the defeat of the Catholic Party at ...
(since 1936) , Social Catholic Party (since 1936) , , - style="vertical-align:top;text-align:center;" !style="text-align:left", Political parties between 1945 and 1970 , colspan="3" , Christian Social Party (CVP/PSC) , colspan="3" ,
Belgian Socialist Party nl, Belgische Socialistische Partij , logo = Logo of the Belgian Socialist Party.png , caption = The fist and rose emblem used by the party from 1973. , leader1_title = President , leader1_name = Achille Van Acker (first)André Cools (last) ...
(BSP/PSB) , colspan="3" , , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Political parties after 1970 , ---- ;minor * ''VCP'' (2007–2014) * ''NCD'' (2012) , {{plainlist, * PSC (until 2002) * CDH (2002-2022) * '' Les Engagés'' (since 2022) ---- ;minor * '' MCC'' (since 1998) * ''CDF'' (2002–2012) , CSP ---- ;minor * '' PDB'' (until 2008) * '' ProDG'' (since 2008) , {{plainlist, * SP (until 2001) * SP.A (2001 - 2021) * Forward (since 2021) , PS , SP , {{plainlist, * PVV (until 1992) *
VLD french: Libéraux et démocrates flamands ouverts , abbreviation = Open Vld , logo = , leader1_title = President , leader1_name = Egbert Lachaert , foundation = 1992 (VLD)2007 (Open Vld) , predecessor = P ...
(1992–2007) *
Open VLD french: Libéraux et démocrates flamands ouverts , abbreviation = Open Vld , logo = , leader1_title = President , leader1_name = Egbert Lachaert , foundation = 1992 (VLD)2007 (Open Vld) , predecessor = P ...
(since 2007) , {{plainlist, * PRL (since 2002 part of MR) * MR (since 2002) , PFF , - style="vertical-align:top;text-align:center;" !style="text-align:left" rowspan="2" , Trade unions , colspan="3" ,
Confederation of Christian Trade Unions The Confederation of Christian Trade Unions ( nl, Algemeen Christelijk Vakverbond, or ACV; french: Confédération des syndicats chrétiens, CSC) is the largest of Belgium's three trade union federations. History The federation was founded in ...
(ACV/CSC) , colspan="3" , General Federation of Belgian Labour (ABVV/FGTB) , colspan="3" , General Confederation of Liberal Trade Unions of Belgium (ACLVB/CGSLB) , - style="vertical-align:top" , Boerenbond , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" colspan="2" , , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" colspan="3" , , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" colspan="3" , , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Health insurance , Christelijke Mutualiteit , Mutualité chrétienne , Christlichen Krankenkasse , Socialistische Mutualiteit , Mutualité socialiste , Sozialistische Krankenkasse , Liberale Mutualiteit , Mutualité Libérale , Freie Krankenkasse , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Hospitals , White/Yellow Cross , Christian Fund , Christian Fund , (Center for) Homecare , Socialist Fund , Socialist Fund , Solidarity for the Family , Liberal Fund , Liberal Fund , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Aid agencies , Caritas Vlaanderen , Caritas en Belgique francophone et germanophone , Caritas en Belgique Francophone-Deutschsprachiges Belgien , FOS-Socialistische Solidariteit , Solidarité Socialiste-FCD , Solidariteit-FCD , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Newspapers , {{plainlist, * De Standaard * Gazet van Antwerpen * Het Volk * Het Belang van Limburg * Het Nieuwsblad ,
La Libre Belgique ''La Libre Belgique'' (; literally ''The Free Belgium''), currently sold under the name ''La Libre'', is a major daily newspaper in Belgium. Together with '' Le Soir'', it is one of the country's major French language newspapers and is popular ...
, Grenz-Echo , {{plainlist, * Vooruit (until 1978) * Volksgazet (until 1978) * De Morgen (since 1978) , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , {{plainlist, * Het Laatste Nieuws * De Tijd , Le Soir , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Cultural associations , Davidsfonds , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' ,
Vermeylenfonds {{refimprove, date=May 2021 The Vermeylenfonds is a non-profit Flemish cultural socialist organization. The Vermeylenfonds was founded in 1945, in Brussels with the aim of studying and of continuing the work of August Vermeylen. The Vermeylenfond ...
, style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , Willemsfonds , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Schools , Flemish Secretariat for Catholic Education (Catholic Schools), Flemish Association of Catholic Colleges , Catholic schools , Public schools , Public schools , Public schools , Public schools, non-denominational private schools , Public schools, non-denominational private schools , Public schools, non-denominational private schools , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Major universities , Katholieke Universiteit Leuven , Université catholique de Louvain , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , Ghent University ,
University of Liège The University of Liège (french: Université de Liège), or ULiège, is a major public university of the French Community of Belgium based in Liège, Wallonia, Belgium. Its official language is French. As of 2020, ULiège is ranked in the ...
, style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Université libre de Bruxelles , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Other universities , {{plainlist, * University of Antwerp * Industriële Hogeschool Brabant * Hogeschool-Universiteit * Vlaams Verbond van Katholieke Hogescholen * Vesalius College * Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp , {{plainlist, * Université de Namur *
Facultés Universitaires Catholiques de Mons UCLouvain FUCaM Mons is a satellite campus of the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) in Mons, Wallonia, Belgium founded in 1896. Until 2011, it was an independent institution known as the Catholic university of Mons (French name: ''Facultés u ...
* Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , Trans-Universiteit Limburg ,
Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques de Gembloux Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech (GxABT), located in Gembloux, Belgium, is one of the eleven faculties of the University of Liège. Founded in 1860 and previously known as the Faculté universitaire des sciences agronomiques de Gembloux (FUSAGx, French fo ...
, style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , Erasmus Hogeschool , Université de Mons , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Youth organisations , {{plainlist, * KVHV * JONGCD&V * Katholische Academische Verbindung Leuven * SGV * Chiro * {{Interlanguage link multi, KSJ-KSA-VKSJ, nl * {{Interlanguage link multi, Katholieke Landelijke Jeugd, lt=KLJ, nl, 3=Katholieke Landelijke Jeugd *
KAJ Kaj may refer to: Places in Iran * Kaj, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari * Kaj, Hamadan * Kaj, Isfahan * Kaj, Qom * Kaj, Razavi Khorasan * Kaj, Sistan and Baluchestan Other uses * Kaj River, a river of Afghanistan * Kaj (name) * A fictional frog ...
, {{plainlist, * FSC * GCB * Jeunes cdH , {{plainlist, * Die Junge Mitte * FSC * GCB , {{plainlist, *
Rode Valken Rode may refer to: People * Ajmer Rode, Canadian writer *Bernd Michael Rode (born 1946), Austrian chemistry professor *Bernhard Rode (1725–1797), German painter *Ebbe Rode (1910–1998), Danish stage and film actor *Franc Rode (born 1934), Slov ...
* Animo Jong Links , MJS , MJS , {{plainlist, * FOS *
VLD french: Libéraux et démocrates flamands ouverts , abbreviation = Open Vld , logo = , leader1_title = President , leader1_name = Egbert Lachaert , foundation = 1992 (VLD)2007 (Open Vld) , predecessor = P ...
JONG , {{plainlist, * SGP * Les Jeunes Réformateurs , {{plainlist, * JFF * SGP * MJS , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Banks , Volksdepositokas Spaarbank , Dexia , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , Bank van De Post , Banque de La Poste , Bank von der Post , Generale Bankmaatschappij , Générale de Banque , Generale Bank , - style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left", Sport clubs , {{plainlist, * {{Interlanguage link multi, Sporta, nl * Gym & Dans Vlaanderen , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , {{plainlist, * AVB (1919–2000) * FROS (1976–2000) * VASCO (1993–2000) * FROS Amateursportconfederatie vzw (since 2000) , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" , ''none'' , - style="vertical-align:top"


''Proporz'' in Austria

{{Main article, Proporz {{more citations needed, section, date=December 2013 The Austrian version of Verzuiling is the long-standing ''Proporz'' doctrine (a
hypocorism A hypocorism ( or ; from Ancient Greek: (), from (), 'to call by pet names', sometimes also ''hypocoristic'') or pet name is a name used to show affection for a person. It may be a diminutive form of a person's name, such as '' Izzy'' fo ...
for ''Proportionalität'',
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
for 'proportionality'). This was first only within the politics of the second Austrian republic, but later degenerated into a neo-corporatist system of patronage and nepotism pervading many aspects of Austrian life. The ''Proporz'' was created, developed and promoted by the two mainstream parties, the
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) and the Social-Democratic Socialist Party of Austria (since 1991 Social Democratic Party of Austria, both names with the acronym of SPÖ). This ''de facto'' two-party system collapsed with the elections of 1999, which resulted in the joining of the
national-conservative National conservatism is a nationalist variant of conservatism that concentrates on upholding national and cultural identity. National conservatives usually combine nationalism with conservative stances promoting traditional cultural values, ...
Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), whose political marginalisation and that of its predecessor, the
Federation of Independents The Federation of Independents (german: Verband der Unabhängigen, VdU) was a German nationalist and national-liberal political party in Austria active from 1949 to 1955. It was the predecessor of the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ). Formation T ...
(VdU), was the main reason for the establishment of the ''Proporz'' policy, because of their pro-German, far right and individualist views. The Proporz system arose out of the need for balanced, consensual governance in the early years of Austria's second republic. At that time, the country was consumed in an effort to rebuild the country after the devastation of World War II. Thus, the doctrine of Proporz is intimately linked to the idea of the grand coalition, in which the major political parties, in the case of post-war Austria the SPÖ and the ÖVP, share in the government. Like in the Netherlands or in Belgium the main parties have partly to this day, "black" and "red" parallel organizations, e.g. B. at touring clubs (ÖAMTC vs. ARBÖ), factions inside the
Austrian Trade Union Federation The Austrian Trade Union Federation or Austrian Federation of Trade Unions ( de: ''Österreichischer Gewerkschaftsbund'', abbreviated OeGB or ÖGB) is a labour union of employees. It is constituted as an association and is subdivided into seven ...
(FCG vs. FSG vs. Freiheitlichen Arbeitnehmer (FPÖ)) or sports associations (Sportunion vs. ASKÖ).


Italy

A similar phenomena existed during the
First Italian Republic The history of the Italian Republic concerns the events relating to the history of Italy that have occurred since 1946, when Italy became a republic. The Italian republican history is generally divided into two phases, the so-called First and Se ...
. There are multiple trade unions: Italian Confederation of Workers' Trade Unions (CISL) which was close Christian Democracy (DC), Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGIL), close to Italian Communist Party (PCI), General Labour Union, allied to the Italian Social Movement (MSI) and the Italian Labour Union which had ties
Italian Republican Party The Italian Republican Party ( it, Partito Repubblicano Italiano, PRI) is a liberal and social-liberal political party in Italy. Founded in 1895, the PRI is the oldest political party still active in Italy. The PRI has old roots and a long histo ...
(PRI) and
Italian Democratic Socialist Party The Italian Democratic Socialist Party (, PSDI), also known as Italian Social Democratic Party, was a minor social-democratic political party in Italy. The longest serving partner in government for Christian Democracy, the PSDI had been an imp ...
(PSDI). The state-owned public broadcaster RAI was split between the parties too.
Rai 1 Rai 1 () is an Italian free-to-air television channel owned and operated by state-owned public broadcaster RAI – Radiotelevisione italiana. It is the company's flagship television channel, and is known for broadcasting mainstream and gene ...
was said to be close to DC, Rai 2 was said to be close to PSI and Rai 3 to PCI.


Northern Ireland

{{see also, Segregation in Northern Ireland The term "pillarisation" has also been used to describe segregation of the two main ethnoreligious groups in
Northern Ireland Northern Ireland ( ga, Tuaisceart Éireann ; sco, label=Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots, Norlin Airlann) is a part of the United Kingdom, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, that is #Descriptions, variously described as ...
, especially between the foundation of Northern Ireland (1922) and the end of The Troubles (1969–1998); segregation and pillarisation persist but are declining. A difference in Northern Ireland is that one group (the
Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
UnionistLoyalist population) enjoyed clear political, economic and social dominance over the other group (the Catholicsnationalistrepublicans). This has been described as pillarisation "without consociationalism."{{Cite web, url=https://books.google.ie/books?id=GiiPAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA272&dq=Pillarisation+%22northern+ireland%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiepLjQq-37AhWZhFwKHbTjBrcQ6AF6BAgLEAI#v=onepage&q=Pillarisation+%22northern+ireland%22&f=false, title=Reforming the Constitution: Debates in Twentieth-Century Britain, first1=Peter, last1=Catterall, first2=Wolfram, last2=Kaiser, first3=Ulrike, last3=Walton-Jordan, date=May 12, 2014, publisher=Routledge, via=Google Books {, class="wikitable" ! People !! Protestants !! Catholics , - , National identity , , "British", "Northern Irish" or "Ulster" , , "Irish" or "Northern Irish" , - , Religions , ,
Church of Ireland The Church of Ireland ( ga, Eaglais na hÉireann, ; sco, label= Ulster-Scots, Kirk o Airlann, ) is a Christian church in Ireland and an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion. It is organised on an all-Ireland basis and is the sec ...

Presbyterianism Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland by John Knox, who was a priest at St. Giles Cathedral (Church of Scotland). Presbyterian churches derive their n ...

Methodism Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's b ...
, ,
Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
, - , Political persuasions , ,
Unionism Unionism may refer to: Trades *Community unionism, the ways trade unions work with community organizations *Craft unionism, a model of trade unionism in which workers are organised based on a particular craft or trade *Dual unionism, the developm ...

Loyalism Loyalism, in the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and its former colonies, refers to the allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom. In North America, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Cr ...

Ulster nationalism
Protestant Irish nationalism, , Irish nationalism
Irish republicanism Irish republicanism ( ga, poblachtánachas Éireannach) is the political movement for the unity and independence of Ireland under a republic. Irish republicans view British rule in any part of Ireland as inherently illegitimate. The develop ...

Irish republican socialism
Dissident republican Dissident republicans, renegade republicans, anti-Agreement republicans or anti-ceasefire republicans ( ga, poblachtach easaontach) are Irish republicans who do not support the current peace agreements in Northern Ireland. The agreements follow ...
, - , Political parties , , Democratic Unionist Party
Ulster Unionist Party
Traditional Unionist Voice
Progressive Unionist Party The Progressive Unionist Party (PUP) is a minor unionist political party in Northern Ireland. It was formed from the Independent Unionist Group operating in the Shankill area of Belfast, becoming the PUP in 1979. Linked to the Ulster Volun ...
, ,
Sinn Féin Sinn Féin ( , ; en, " eOurselves") is an Irish republican and democratic socialist political party active throughout both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The original Sinn Féin organisation was founded in 1905 by Arthur Gr ...

Social Democratic and Labour Party
Workers' Party
Aontú
Irish Republican Socialist Party The Irish Republican Socialist Party or IRSP ( ga, Páirtí Poblachtach Sóisialach na hÉireann) is a Marxist-Leninist and republican party in Ireland. It is often referred to as the "political wing" of the Irish National Liberation Army ( ...

Nationalist Party (before 1977) , - , Unions , , Ulster Workers' Council , , Irish Congress of Trade Unions , - , Languages , , English, Ulster Scots
British Sign Language British Sign Language (BSL) is a sign language used in the United Kingdom (UK), and is the first or preferred language among the Deaf community in the UK. Based on the percentage of people who reported 'using British Sign Language at home' o ...
, Northern Ireland Sign Language , , English and Irish
Irish Sign Language, Northern Ireland Sign Language , - , Schools , , Protestant schools, state schools, , Catholic schools , - , Universities , , Queen's University of Belfast
Magee College
Ulster University
Stranmillis University College Stranmillis University College is a university college of Queen's University Belfast. The institution is located on the Stranmillis Road in Belfast. It had students in . The school offers the BEd, PGCE and TESOL, as well as other courses. Hi ...

''Universities in
Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It ...
'' , , Ulster University
St Mary's University College, Belfast St Mary's University College is a university college in Belfast, Northern Ireland. History The origins of the College can be traced back to 1900 when the Dominican Sisters opened St Mary’s Training College on the present Falls Road campus with ...

''Universities in the
Republic of Ireland Ireland ( ga, Éire ), also known as the Republic of Ireland (), is a country in north-western Europe consisting of 26 of the 32 counties of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, on the eastern side of the island. ...
'' , - , Sports , ,
Rugby union Rugby union, commonly known simply as rugby, is a close-contact team sport that originated at Rugby School in the first half of the 19th century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. In it ...

Cricket Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a field at the centre of which is a pitch with a wicket at each end, each comprising two bails balanced on three stumps. The batting side scores runs by st ...

Field hockey Field hockey is a team sport structured in standard hockey format, in which each team plays with ten outfield players and a goalkeeper. Teams must drive a round hockey ball by hitting it with a hockey stick towards the rival team's shooting ...

Soccer Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of 11 players who primarily use their feet to propel the ball around a rectangular field called a pitch. The objective of the game is ...
(most clubs) , , Gaelic football
Hurling and camogie
Soccer Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of 11 players who primarily use their feet to propel the ball around a rectangular field called a pitch. The objective of the game is ...
( Cliftonville, Derry City;
Belfast Celtic Belfast Celtic Football Club was a football club. Founded in 1891 in Belfast, Northern Ireland, it was one of the most successful teams in Ireland until it withdrew permanently from the Irish League in 1949. The club left the league for polit ...
until 1949) , - , Banks , , Ulster Bank
Belfast Banking Company The Belfast Banking Company was a bank in Northern Ireland. It was established in 1827 by a merger of Batt's (also known as The Belfast Bank) and Tennant's (The Commercial Bank). The Belfast Banking Company operated primarily in Ulster and sold ...
(to 1970), , Bank of Ireland
Hibernian Bank Bank of Ireland Group plc ( ga, Banc na hÉireann) is a commercial bank operation in Ireland and one of the traditional Big Four Irish banks. Historically the premier banking organisation in Ireland, the Bank occupies a unique position in Iris ...
(to 1958) , - , Newspapers , , '' Belfast Telegraph''
'' News Letter''
'' Sunday Life''
'' Northern Whig'' (until 1963)
''
Protestant Telegraph The ''Protestant Telegraph'' was a Northern Irish newspaper founded by Noel Doherty and Ian Paisley on 13 February 1966. It was noted for its Protestant fundamentalism and its attacks on the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of Ireland and the ...
'' (1966–82) , , ''
The Irish News ''The Irish News'' is a compact daily newspaper based in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It is Northern Ireland's largest selling morning newspaper and is available throughout Ireland. It is broadly Irish nationalist in its viewpoint, though it al ...
''
''
An Phoblacht ''An Phoblacht'' (Irish pronunciation: ; en, "The Republic") is a formerly weekly, and currently monthly newspaper published by Sinn Féin in Ireland. From early 2018 onwards, ''An Phoblacht'' has moved to a magazine format while remaining an ...
''
''
''Lá'' ( Irish for "Day"; later known as ''Lá Nua'', Irish for "New Day") was an Irish-language daily newspaper based in Belfast. It was the first daily newspaper in Ireland to be published in Irish. ''Lá Nua'' belonged to the Belfast Media ...
'' (1984–2008) , - , TV and radio , , BBC Northern Ireland
UTV
BBC Radio Ulster
Pirate radio: Voice of Ulster, Radio Orange, Radio Shankill, Radio Sundown, Radio Free Ulster , , RTÉ ''(Republic of Ireland state broadcaster)''
Pirate radio: Radio Free Belfast, Radio Free Derry Especially since the Belfast Agreement (1998), efforts have been made to break down segregation. "Cross-community" political parties such as the Alliance Party,
Green Party A green party is a formally organized political party based on the principles of green politics, such as social justice, environmentalism and nonviolence. Greens believe that these issues are inherently related to one another as a foundation f ...
and
People Before Profit People Before Profit ( ga, Pobal Roimh Bhrabús, PBP) is a left-wing to far-left Trotskyist political party formed in October 2005. It is active in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. History PBP was established in 2005 as the ...
exist, and a growing number of people who identify and vote as "other," rather than for "Catholic" or "Protestant" identities, as well as growing numbers of atheists; but elections are often derided as a " sectarian head-count," with growing Protestant anxiety over the possibility of a Catholic majority.{{Cite web, url=https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/opinion/counting-catholics-not-sectarian-head-counting-countering-original-sectarian-headcount-310051, title=Counting Catholics is not sectarian head-counting but countering the original sectarian headcount, date=March 30, 2018, website=www.newsletter.co.uk Historically, other non-sectarian political parties also operated, most notably the Northern Ireland Labour Party and the
Northern Ireland Women's Coalition The Northern Ireland Women's Coalition (NIWC) was a minor cross-community political party in Northern Ireland from 1996 to 2006. The NIWC was founded by Catholic academic Monica McWilliams and Protestant social worker Pearl Sagar to contest ele ...
.


See also

{{Portal, Belgium, Netherlands, Politics, Religion, Society * Balkanization * Consociationalism * Identity politics * Millet (Ottoman Empire) * Sectarianism * Social environment * '' Sui iuris'' * Test Act * Political particularism


References

{{Reflist


Further reading

* {{Citation , first=Kris , last=Deschouwer , title=Freezing pillars and frozen cleavages: Party systems and voting alignments in consociational democracies , work=Party Systems and Voter Alignments Revisited , publisher=Routledge , year=2001 , pages=205–221 * {{Citation , first=Harry , last=Post , title=Pillarization: An Analysis of Dutch and Belgian Society , publisher=Avebury , year=1989 * {{Citation , first=M. P. C. M. , last=van Schendelen , title=Consociationalism, pillarization and conflict-management in the Low Countries , publisher=Boom , year=1984 * Christophe de Voogd: "Histoire des Pays-Bas des origines à nos jours", Fayard, Paris, 2004 {{Segregation by type {{Relpolnav Social history of Belgium Political history of Belgium Social history of the Netherlands Political history of the Netherlands Identity politics Segregation