Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; also known as 'Bajra' in

Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...

, 'Sajje' in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

, 'Kambu' in

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, na ...

, 'Bajeer' in Kumaoni and 'Maiwa' in Hausa, 'Mexoeira' in

Mozambique Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...

) is the most widely grown type of

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets a ...

. It has been grown in

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

and the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...

since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of domestication, for the crop is in the Sahel zone of

West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali ...

. Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern

Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...

between 2500 and 2000 BC.

Description

Pearl millet has

ovoid An oval () is a closed curve in a plane which resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas ( projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.) it is given a more precise definition, which may include either o ...

grains of 3 – 4 mm length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including sorghum). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g. The height of the plant ranges from 0.5 – 4 m.

Cultivation

Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by

drought A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...

, low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other

cereal A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...

crops, such as

maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American English, North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous ...

wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...

, would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations.The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China. Today pearl millet is grown on over 260,000 km² of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets. Pearl millet is the most widely grown millet and is a very important crop in India and parts of Africa. World production of millets has been stable during the 1980s. According to FAO, 39.4 million hectares of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only 704kg/ha.

Structure and physical properties

pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet. Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal, lanceolate, globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences.

Composition

The mean value in proximate composition of variety Changara of pearl millet are presented in the table below. The proximate composition can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein content and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is a naked caryopsis. All means values are expressed on dry matter basis N*6.5

Culinary use

Pearl millet is commonly used to make '' bhakri'' flatbread. It is also boiled to make a

porridge called ''kamban choru'' or "kamban koozh". In

Rajasthani cuisine Rajasthani cuisine ( hi, राजस्थानी व्यञ्जन) is the cuisine of the rugged Rajasthan region in North West India. It was influenced by both the warlike lifestyles of its inhabitants and the availability of ingred ...

is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and

yogurt Yogurt (; , from tr, yoğurt, also spelled yoghurt, yogourt or yoghourt) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as ''yogurt cultures''. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bac ...

. It is usually made in summers to be served along with meals.

Around the world

India

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE. It is currently unknown how it made its way to India. Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1. Sajje is the local name of the Pearl Millet in Karnataka and is mostly grown in the semi-arid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'Sajje Rotti' and is eaten with Yennegai (stuffed brinjal) and yogurt. Kambu is the Tamil name of pearl millet and is an important food across the

Indian state India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, with a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions. History Pre-indepen ...

of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a gruel and consumed along with buttermilk or consumed as

dosa Dosa may refer to: People * Bogoljub Mitić Đoša, Serbian actor * Csaba Dosa (born 1951), Romanian athlete * Dosa ben Harkinas * Dosa ben Saadia (935 - 1018), Talmudic scholar and philosopher * Dosa or Dossa Júnior * Edward Dosa-Wea Neufv ...

or idly. Pearl Millet is called Bajra in Northern Indian states. There was a time when pearl millets along with

finger millet ''Eleusine coracana'', or finger millet, also known as ragi in India, kodo in Nepal, is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species ...

s and sorghum were the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to mere cattle fodder crop after the Green Revolution in the 1960s.

Africa

The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost crop.

Sahel

Pearl millet is an important food across the Sahel region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with sorghum) in a large region of northern

Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...

Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesMali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...

and

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana t ...

. In Nigeria it is usually grown as an intercrop with sorghum and

cowpea The cowpea (''Vigna unguiculata'') is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus ''Vigna''. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inputs, ...

, the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in

Borno state Borno State is a state in the North-East geopolitical zone of Nigeria, bordered by Yobe to the west, Gombe to the southwest, and Adamawa to the south while its eastern border forms part of the national border with Cameroon, its northern borde ...

and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.

Namibia

Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ea ...

, pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the staple food. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as

. Mahangu is usually made into a

porridge Porridge is a food made by heating or boiling ground, crushed or chopped starchy plants, typically grain, in milk or water. It is often cooked or served with added flavourings such as sugar, honey, (dried) fruit or syrup to make a sweet cereal, ...

called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or

ferment Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In food p ...

ed to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu". Traditionally the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of

termite Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes ( eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter. Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blat ...

mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing. After pounding, winnowing may be used to remove the

chaff Chaff (; ) is the dry, scaly protective casing of the seeds of cereal grains or similar fine, dry, scaly plant material (such as scaly parts of flowers or finely chopped straw). Chaff is indigestible by humans, but livestock can eat it. In agri ...

. Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by Namib Mills. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using

food extrusion Extrusion in food processing consists of forcing soft mixed ingredients through an opening in a perforated plate or die designed to produce the required shape. The extruded food is then cut to a specific size by blades. The machine which forces ...

and other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal

die Die, as a verb, refers to death, the cessation of life. Die may also refer to: Games * Die, singular of dice, small throwable objects used for producing random numbers Manufacturing * Die (integrated circuit), a rectangular piece of a semicondu ...

. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including puffed grains and

, pasta shapes, and "rice".

Research and development

Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably. To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron- biofortified pearl millets which is bred conventionally without

genetic modification Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including ...

to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group. Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes, including 31 wild genotypes are sequenced to grasp the genetic diversity of this staple crop to aid breeding by enriching the genetic material. A reference genotype of pearl millet (Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax biosynthesis, which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet. ICRISAT is currently evaluatin
crop wild relatives
and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement.

Pests

Insect pests include: ;Seedling pests *shoot fly '' Atherigona approximata'' (major seedling pest) *''

Atherigona soccata ''Atherigona soccata'', the sorghum shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae whose larvae feed on the central growing shoots of millet crops like sorghum and finger millet, as well as maize, where they can cause serious loss of yield ...

'', ''

Atherigona oryzae ''Atherigona oryzae'', the rice shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. It is found in Asia and Australia. It is known to affect rice, kodo millet ''Paspalum scrobiculatum'', commonly called Kodo millet or Koda millet,A. E. Gran ...

'', ''

Atherigona punctata ''Atherigona punctata'', the Coimbatore wheat stem fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. In South India, it is a pest of the wheat plant, ''Triticum aestivum Common wheat (''Triticum aestivum''), also known as bread wheat, is a c ...

'', '' Atherigona ponti'', and '' Atherigona yorki'' *anthomyiid flies '' Delia arambourgi'' and '' Delia flavibasis'' (Ethiopia) ;Stem borers *lepidopteran borers: ''

Chilo partellus ''Chilo partellus'', the spotted stalk borer or spotted stem borer, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Charles Swinhoe in 1885. It is found in India, Pakistan, Iran, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, South Africa, Sudan, ...

'', '' Chilo infuscatellus'', '' Sesamia calamistis'', '' Sesamia cretica'', ''

Sesamia inferens ''Sesamia inferens'', the Asiatic pink stem borer, gramineous stem borer, pink borer, pink rice borer, pink rice stem borer, pink stem borer, purple borer, purple stem borer or purplish stem borer, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species ...

'', '' Diatraea grandiosella'', ''

Coniesta ignefusalis ''Coniesta ignefusalis'', the pearl millet stem-borer, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by George Hampson in 1919. Distribution ''Coniesta ignefusalis'' is found throughout the West African Sahel, including in Senegal, Mali, B ...

'', '' Busseola fusca'', '' Eldana saccharina'', ''

Ostrinia furnacalis ''Ostrinia furnacalis'' is a species of moth in the family Crambidae, the grass moths. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1854 and is known by the common name Asian corn borer since this species is found in Asia and feeds mainly on corn cro ...

'', and '' Ostrinia nubilalis'' ;Leaf feeders *lepidopteran caterpillars: ''

Amsacta moorei ''Paramsacta moorei'' is a moth of the family Erebidae. It was described by Arthur Gardiner Butler in 1875. It is found in India and Pakistan.Mythimna loreyi'', ''

Mythimna separata ''Mythimna separata'', the northern armyworm, oriental armyworm or rice ear-cutting caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in China, Japan, South-east Asia, India, eastern Australia, New Zealand, and some Pacific islands. I ...

'', ''

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis ''Cnaphalocrocis medinalis'', the rice leafroller, is a species of moth of the family Crambidae. It is found in south-east Asia, including Hong Kong, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and most of Australia. The wingspan is about . The larvae are cons ...

'', '' Cnaphalocrocis patnalis'', ''

Spodoptera exigua The beet armyworm or small mottled willow moth (''Spodoptera exigua'') is one of the best-known agriculture, agricultural pest insects. It is also known as the asparagus fern caterpillar. It is native to Asia, but has been introduced Cosmopolitan ...

'', '' Spodoptera frugiperda'', ''

Spodoptera mauritia ''Spodoptera mauritia'', the lawn armyworm or paddy swarming caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1833. Able to eat many types of food, it is a major pest throughout the wor ...

'', '' Autoba silicula'' *grasshoppers: '' Diabolocatantops axillaris'', '' Hieroglyphus banian'', '' Hieroglyphus daganensis'', '' Oedaleus senegalensis'', and '' Schistocerca gregaria'' ;Sucking pests *bugs: ''

Blissus leucopterus ''Blissus leucopterus'', also known as the true chinch bug, is a small North American insect in the order Hemiptera and family Blissidae. It is the most commonly encountered species of the genus '' Blissus'', which are all known as chinch bugs. ...

'', '' Nysius niger'' *hoppers: ''

Cicadulina mbila ''Cicadulina mbila'', the maize leafhopper, is a leafhopper species in the genus '' Cicadulina''. It is found in sub-Saharan Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), the Middle East, West Asia and India. It is one of the vectors of the maize strea ...

'', ''

Cicadulina storeyi ''Cicadulina storeyi'' is a species of true bug in the family Cicadellidae. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human ...

'', and ''

Pyrilla perpusilla ''Pyrilla perpusilla'', commonly known as the sugarcane planthopper, is a planthopper in the family Lophopidae. It is native to Asia where it feeds on grasses and other plants and is a major pest of sugarcane and sorghum. Description The adul ...

'' *aphids: ''

Rhopalosiphum maidis ''Rhopalosiphum maidis'', common names corn leaf aphid and corn aphid, is an insect, and a pest of maize and other crops. It has a nearly worldwide distribution and is typically found in agricultural fields, grasslands, and forest-grassland zone ...

'', ''

Sitobion miscanthi The Indian grain aphid (''Sitobion miscanthi''), also known as ''Sitobion (Sitobion) miscanthi'', is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from cereal plants, making it a pest of wheat p ...

'', and '' Hyalopterus pruni'' ;Other pests *beetle '' Chiloloba acuta'' *millet midge '' Geromyia penniseti'' *'' Euproctis'' spp., '' Orvasca subnotata'', and ''

Helicoverpa armigera ''Helicoverpa armigera'' is a species of Lepidoptera in the family Noctuidae. It is known as the cotton bollworm, corn earworm, Old World (African) bollworm, or scarce bordered straw (the lattermost in the UK, where it is a migrant). The larvae f ...

'' *''

Spodoptera exempta The African armyworm (''Spodoptera exempta''), also called ''okalombo'', ''kommandowurm'', or nutgrass armyworm, is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. The larvae often exhibit marching behavior when traveling to feeding sites, leading to ...

'', '' Spilarctia obliqua'', '' Pachnoda interrupta'', ''

Phyllophaga ''Phyllophaga'' is a very large genus (more than 900 species) of New World scarab beetles in the subfamily Melolonthinae. Common names for this genus and many other related genera in the subfamily Melolonthinae are May beetles, June bugs, and ...

'' spp., '' Thrips hawaiiensis'', '' Myllocerus'' spp., and '' Peregrinus maidis'' *'' Holotrichia consanguinea'' and '' Holotrichia serrata''

Africa

The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the orders

Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describe ...

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described speci ...

Diptera Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...

, and

Hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from to arou ...

, as well as

Orthoptera Orthoptera () is an order of insects that comprises the grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets, including closely related insects, such as the bush crickets or katydids and wētā. The order is subdivided into two suborders: Caelifera – grassh ...

adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the Sahel. The following pest species are reported for northern Mali. *''

'' (pearl millet stem-borer; Lepidoptera, Crambidae) attacks pearl millet, and also sorghum and maize, especially in the Sahel. It is the main pearl millet pest in

Senegal Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...

. *'' Heliocheilus albipunctella'' (pearl millet head-miner; Lepidoptera,

Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the other ...

) attacks pearl millet. The larvae bore in a spiral path, destroying florets or grain. *'' Geromyia penniseti'' (millet grain midge): The larvae eat the developing grain and form white pupal cases attached to the tips of spikelets. Reported losses in Senegal are as high as 90 percent. *'' Pachnoda interrupta'' (millet beetle) *'' Psalydolytta fusca'' and '' Psalydolytta vestita'' (pearl millet blister beetle; Coleoptera, Meloidae) attack pearl millet. They are major millet pests in Mali. *'' Rhinyptia infuscata'' (Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae,

Anomalini Anomalini is a tribe of shining leaf chafers in the family Scarabaeidae. There are about 1300 described species in Anomalini worldwide, including 60 in North America. Selected genera * ''Anomala'' Samouelle, 1819 * ''Anomalacra ''Anomalacr ...

) is a nocturnal beetle, recorded as a locally important pest on millet flowers in

Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesSenegal Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...

, and as a pest on maize, where the larvae attack the roots. *'' Sesamia calamistis'' (pink stem borer), especially in lowland forests. This species and the sugarcane borer ('' Eldana saccharina'') are the primary pests of the pearl millet in

Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre i ...

. *

gall midge Cecidomyiidae is a family of flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small insects ...

s (Diptera,

Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyiidae is a family of flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small insects us ...

): millet grain midge ('' Geromyia penniseti''), sorghum midge ('' Contarinia sorghicola''), and African rice gall midge ('' Orseolia oryzivora''). *''

Dysdercus volkeri ''Dysdercus'' is a widespread genus of true bugs in the family Pyrrhocoridae; a number of species attacking cotton bolls may be called "cotton stainers". Description Species may be confused with bugs in the family Lygaeidae, but can be distin ...

'' (cotton-stainer; Hemiptera,

Pyrrhocoridae Pyrrhocoridae is a family of insects with more than 300 species world-wide. Many are red coloured and are known as red bugs and some species are called cotton stainers because their feeding activities leave an indelible yellow-brownish stain on ...

) attacks flowers. Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the Dogon country of Mali are '' Oedaleus senegalensis'', '' Kraussaria angulifera'', '' Cataloipus cymbiferus'', and '' Diabolocatantops axillaris''. In northern Ghana, '' Poophilus costalis'' (spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well as ''

'', '' Heliocheilus albipunctella'', ''

'', and caterpillars of ''

Amsacta moloneyi ''Amsacta moloneyi'' is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in Africa. In northern Ghana, it has been reported as a pest of pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; al ...

'' and ''

''. In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of '' Hycleus'' species, including '' Hycleus terminatus'' (syn. '' Mylabris afzelli''), '' Hycleus fimbriatus'' (syn. '' Mylabris fimbriatus''), '' Hycleus hermanniae'' (syn. '' Coryna hermanniae''), and '' Hycleus chevrolati'' (syn. '' Coryna chevrolati''), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.

Other regions

In South India, pests include the shoot fly '' Atherigona approximata''. In North America, regular pests include the chinch bug ''

''.

Gallery

File:Checking pearl millet crop.jpg, A scientist in

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and ...

checks a pearl millet crop File:Mahangu poundin.jpg, Mahangu pounding in

File:Mahangu pounding.jpg, Mahangu pounding in

File:Making dough from flour (10692692875).jpg, This flour mill in

Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands ...

mills pearl millet.

Description

Cultivation

Structure and physical properties

Composition

Culinary use

Around the world

India

Africa

Sahel

Namibia

Research and development

Pests

Africa

Other regions

Gallery

References

Further reading