Changes in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War

This is a list of the

crises A crisis (: crises; : critical) is any event or period that will lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, or all of society. Crises are negative changes in the human or environmental affairs, especially when ...

and

war War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organi ...

s in the

countries of the former Soviet Union The post-Soviet states, also referred to as the former Soviet Union or the former Soviet republics, are the independent sovereign states that emerged/re-emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Prior to their independence, they ...

following its dissolution in 1991. Those conflicts have different origins but two primary driving factors can be identified : ethnic and cultural tensions (which underlie many of the conflicts in the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...

and

Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...

), and Russian irredentism, meaning Russia's policies to restore its historical sphere of influence, much of which was lost after the

collapse of the Soviet Union The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Declaration No. 142-Н of ...

Ethnic and cultural tensions

Ethnic and cultural tensions in the post-Soviet space largely have their roots in the territorial delineations established during the early Soviet period (1920s–1930s), particularly through the policy of so-called national-territorial delimitation (in

Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...

: национально-территориальное размежевание, transliteration: ''natsionalno-territorialnoye razmezhevaniye''). Although this policy officially aimed to create coherent national republics based on ethnic, linguistic, and economic criteria, it often resulted in complex borders that left many minorities isolated within entities dominated by other groups. These decisions, compounded by later policies of

centralization Centralisation or centralization (American English) is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning, decision-making, and framing strategies and policies, become concentrated within a particular ...

and

russification Russification (), Russianisation or Russianization, is a form of cultural assimilation in which non-Russians adopt Russian culture and Russian language either voluntarily or as a result of a deliberate state policy. Russification was at times ...

contributed to the emergence of interethnic tensions following the breakup of the USSR. Throughout most of the Soviet era, such tensions remained latent, largely due to the

authoritarian Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...

nature of the regime, which suppressed any form of identity-based or political expression. However, starting in 1985, the implementation of

perestroika ''Perestroika'' ( ; rus, перестройка, r=perestrojka, p=pʲɪrʲɪˈstrojkə, a=ru-perestroika.ogg, links=no) was a political reform movement within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the late 1980s, widely associ ...

and

glasnost ''Glasnost'' ( ; , ) is a concept relating to openness and transparency. It has several general and specific meanings, including a policy of maximum openness in the activities of state institutions and freedom of information and the inadmissi ...

reforms by

Mikhail Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (2 March 1931 – 30 August 2022) was a Soviet and Russian politician who served as the last leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to dissolution of the Soviet Union, the country's dissolution in 1991. He served a ...

introduced a certain degree of

freedom of expression Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The rights, right to freedom of expression has been r ...

, allowing national demands to surface in several

republics A republic, based on the Latin phrase '' res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a state in which political power rests with the public (people), typically through their representatives—in contrast to a monarchy. Although ...

and autonomous regions. It was in this new climate that the regional Soviet of

Nagorno-Karabakh Nagorno-Karabakh (, ; ) is a region in Azerbaijan, covering the southeastern stretch of the Lesser Caucasus mountain range. Part of the greater region of Karabakh, it spans the area between Lower Karabakh and Syunik Province, Syunik. Its ter ...

(a majority-

Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...

region) formally requested to be transferred to the

Armenian SSR The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (ArSSR), also known as Soviet Armenia, or simply Armenia, was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union, located in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Soviet Armenia bordered the Soviet republics ...

—an event that triggered the first post-Soviet conflict: the

First Nagorno-Karabakh War The First Nagorno-Karabakh War was an ethnic conflict, ethnic and territorial conflict that took place from February 1988 to May 1994, in the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan, between the majority ethnic Armenians of Nag ...

Russian irredentism

After the fall of the USSR, 25 million

Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...

found themselves outside the borders of the newly formed

Russian Federation Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

. Despite this event which could have triggered the emergence of irredentist sentiment, the Russian political class showed almost no will of this type. This can be explained by the context of the time. Russia in the 1990s and early 2000s was grappling with significant internal problems, including

economic crisis A financial crisis is any of a broad variety of situations in which some financial assets suddenly lose a large part of their nominal value. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many financial crises were associated with banking panics, and ma ...

(linked to the transition to a market economy),

constitutional crisis In political science, a constitutional crisis is a problem or conflict in the function of a government that the constitution, political constitution or other fundamental governing law is perceived to be unable to resolve. There are several variat ...

, internal war (

Chechnya Chechnya, officially the Chechen Republic, is a Republics of Russia, republic of Russia. It is situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The republic forms a part of the North Caucasian Federa ...

), dysfunctional public services, and more... These issues effectively relegated

foreign policy Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a State (polity), state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, includ ...

to the sidelines. At the same time, several former

Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact (WP), formally the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA), was a Collective security#Collective defense, collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Polish People's Republic, Poland, between the Sovi ...

countries joined

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...

, viewing the alliance as a source of security and a path towards deeper integration with the

West West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...

. Russian leaders consistently condemned this expansion, perceiving it as a direct threat to Russia. In 1994, president

Boris Yeltsin Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (1 February 1931 – 23 April 2007) was a Soviet and Russian politician and statesman who served as President of Russia from 1991 to 1999. He was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1961 to ...

declared, ''"Our attitude towards NATO expansion plans ..remains and will remain invariably negative. ..This decision can lead to a deterioration of trust between Russia and Western countries."'' Despite these denunciations, the Russian government took little to no concrete actions to counter these waves of NATO expansion. On the contrary, cooperation was even established with the signing of a NATO-Russia Founding Act in 1997. This apparent contradiction between rhetoric and action can once again be attributed to the broader Russian context of the time: Russia had lost its

superpower Superpower describes a sovereign state or supranational union that holds a dominant position characterized by the ability to Sphere of influence, exert influence and Power projection, project power on a global scale. This is done through the comb ...

status and, as mentioned earlier, was in a concerning internal situation. To avoid completely losing its influence on the international stage, Russian leaders sought to fully integrate into the

world order In international relations, international order refers to patterned or structured relationships between actors on the international level. Definition David A. Lake, David Lake, Lisa Martin (political scientist), Lisa Martin and Thomas Risse d ...

, which at the time was reflected in the desire to establish good relations with the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

, the of the era, hence the wish for positive relations with

Vladimir Putin Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (born 7 October 1952) is a Russian politician and former intelligence officer who has served as President of Russia since 2012, having previously served from 2000 to 2008. Putin also served as Prime Minister of Ru ...

's rise to power in 2000 marked a turning point in Russian

domestic Domestic may refer to: In the home * Anything relating to the human home or family ** A domestic animal, one that has undergone domestication ** A domestic appliance, or home appliance ** A domestic partnership ** Domestic science, sometimes cal ...

and

. Although he initially maintained the same approach as his predecessor regarding relations with the

, the stated goal was to restore the Russian state, weakened by the previous decade, and to strengthen its authority on the international stage. During his early terms, Putin primarily sought to economically revitalize the country, benefiting from the rise in hydrocarbons prices. Foreign policy remained relatively moderate, despite persistent tensions regarding NATO expansion and Western influence in the post-Soviet space. However, a major turning point occurred in 2007 with Vladimir Putin's speech at the Munich Security Conference. He openly denounced the

unilateralism __NOTOC__ Unilateralism is any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided action. Such action may be in disregard for other parties, or as an expression of a commitment toward a direction which other parties may find disagreeable. As a word, ''un ...

of the

, criticized NATO expansion as a provocation, and reaffirmed Russia's intention to defend its strategic interests. This speech is widely interpreted as the end of the cooperation phase and the beginning of a more aggressive foreign policy. The first concrete manifestation of this new orientation occurred in 2008 with the

Russo-Georgian War The August 2008 Russo-Georgian War, also known as the Russian invasion of Georgia,Occasionally, the war is also referred to by other names, such as the Five-Day War and August War. was a war waged against Georgia by the Russian Federation and the ...

. For several years,

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...

, under the presidency of

Mikheil Saakashvili Mikheil "Misha" Saakashvili (born 21 December 1967) is a Georgian and Ukrainian politician and jurist. He was the third president of Georgia for two consecutive terms from 25 January 2004 to 17 November 2013. He is the founder and former chair ...

, had expressed its desire to join Euro-Atlantic structures, even formally applying for NATO membership in April 2008. This rapprochement was viewed negatively by Moscow, which saw the expansion of the Atlantic Alliance as a direct threat to its strategic interests in the

. On August 7, 2008, the situation deteriorated when Georgian authorities attempted to retake

South Ossetia South Ossetia, officially the Republic of South Ossetia or the State of Alania, is a landlocked country in the South Caucasus with International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, partial diplomatic recognition. It has an offici ...

by force, a

separatist Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, regional, governmental, or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seekin ...

region supported by Russia since the 1990s. In response, Moscow took advantage of the situation and intervened militarily under the pretext of defending the Ossetian and

populations of the region. After eight days of fighting, Georgia was forced to sign a

ceasefire A ceasefire (also known as a truce), also spelled cease-fire (the antonym of 'open fire'), is a stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions often due to mediation by a third party. Ceasefires may b ...

. Russia then recognized the independence of

and

Abkhazia Abkhazia, officially the Republic of Abkhazia, is a List of states with limited recognition, partially recognised state in the South Caucasus, on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, at the intersection of Eastern Europe and West Asia. It cover ...

, two secessionist regions, and established permanent military bases there. This conflict marked a decisive step: for the first time since the end of the Soviet Union, Russia explicitly used force to pressure a neighboring state to deter it from integrating into Western structures, thus asserting its role as a regional power and initiating a more pronounced shift towards irredentist policies. The 2008 Russo-Georgian War constituted an important precedent, demonstrating that Russia was now prepared to use force to defend its post-Soviet

sphere of influence In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. While there may be a formal a ...

. However, this intervention remained limited in its immediate territorial objectives, with Moscow content to recognize the independence of

and

without proceeding to formal annexation. The true conflict demonstrating Russia's

irredentist Irredentism () is one state's desire to annex the territory of another state. This desire can be motivated by ethnic reasons because the population of the territory is ethnically similar to or the same as the population of the parent state. Hist ...

and

expansionist Expansionism refers to states obtaining greater territory through military empire-building or colonialism. In the classical age of conquest moral justification for territorial expansion at the direct expense of another established polity (who ...

will was the Ukrainian conflict, which began in 2014 and intensified in 2022. In February 2014, the pro-European Maidan movement led to the ousting of President

Viktor Yanukovych Viktor Fedorovych Yanukovych (born 9 July 1950) is a Ukrainian politician who served as the fourth president of Ukraine from 2010 to 2014. He also served as the prime minister of Ukraine several times between 2002 and 2007 and was a member of t ...

, which Moscow perceived as a Western-backed coup. In March, Russia annexed

Crimea Crimea ( ) is a peninsula in Eastern Europe, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, almost entirely surrounded by the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. The Isthmus of Perekop connects the peninsula to Kherson Oblast in mainland Ukrain ...

, a peninsula strategically important due to its majority Russian population and the presence of the

Black Sea Fleet The Black Sea Fleet () is the Naval fleet, fleet of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Mediterranean Sea. The Black Sea Fleet, along with other Russian ground and air forces on the Crimea, Crimean Peninsula, are subordin ...

Sevastopol Sevastopol ( ), sometimes written Sebastopol, is the largest city in Crimea and a major port on the Black Sea. Due to its strategic location and the navigability of the city's harbours, Sevastopol has been an important port and naval base th ...

. This action was widely condemned by the international community. Simultaneously, pro-Russian separatist insurgencies erupted in eastern Ukraine, notably in the

Donetsk Donetsk ( , ; ; ), formerly known as Aleksandrovka, Yuzivka (or Hughesovka), Stalin, and Stalino, is an industrial city in eastern Ukraine located on the Kalmius River in Donetsk Oblast, which is currently occupied by Russia as the capita ...

and

Luhansk Luhansk (, ; , ), also known as Lugansk (, ; , ), is a city in the Donbas in eastern Ukraine. As of 2022, the population was estimated to be making Luhansk the Cities in Ukraine, 12th-largest city in Ukraine. Luhansk served as the administra ...

oblasts, indirectly supported by Moscow. This dual movement—the annexation of Crimea and the destabilization of Donbass—marked a break with the more moderate policy of post-Soviet Russia, indicating a clear irredentist will. The conflict then stabilized into a low-intensity war, punctuated by the Minsk agreements (2014 and 2015), without a real settlement. While Ukraine strengthened its ties with the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...

and

, Russia pursued a hybrid influence policy and consolidated its hold on Crimea. In February 2022, citing the protection of Russian-speaking populations, Moscow launched a large-scale invasion of Ukraine. This invasion marked a major turning point in post-Soviet history: for the first time, Russia undertook a full-scale

conventional war Conventional warfare is a form of warfare conducted by using conventional weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined and fight by using weapons that target primarily ...

against a

sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...

former Soviet state, implicitly claiming irredentist objectives and openly challenging the international order established after the end of the Cold War.

Frozen conflicts

Some post-Soviet conflicts ended in a stalemate or without a

peace treaty A peace treaty is an treaty, agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually country, countries or governments, which formally ends a declaration of war, state of war between the parties. It is different from an armistice, which is an ag ...

, and are referred to as

frozen conflict In international relations, a frozen conflict is a situation in which active armed conflict has been brought to an end, but no peace treaty or other political framework resolves the conflict to the satisfaction of the combatants. Therefore, ...

s. This means that a number of

post-Soviet states The post-Soviet states, also referred to as the former Soviet Union or the former Soviet republics, are the independent sovereign states that emerged/re-emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Prior to their independence, they ...

have

sovereignty Sovereignty can generally be defined as supreme authority. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state as well as external autonomy for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate au ...

over the entirety of their territory in name only. In reality, they do not exercise full control over areas still under the control of rebel factions. In many instances, these territories have institutions which are similar to those of fully-fledged independent states, albeit with little or no international recognition, including

and

;

Transnistria Transnistria, officially known as the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic and locally as Pridnestrovie, is a Landlocked country, landlocked Transnistria conflict#International recognition of Transnistria, breakaway state internationally recogn ...

Moldova Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova, is a Landlocked country, landlocked country in Eastern Europe, with an area of and population of 2.42 million. Moldova is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. ...

; and previously, the

Donetsk People's Republic The Donetsk People's Republic (DPR; , ) is Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine, occupied territory in Ukraine that the Russian Federation has claimed to annex and declared as a Republics of Russia, republic of Russia, comprising parts o ...

and

Luhansk People's Republic The Luhansk People's Republic (LPR; , ) is a disputed territory administered as a republic of Russia in the occupied parts of eastern Ukraine's Luhansk Oblast, with its capital in Luhansk. The LPR was proclaimed by Russian-backed paramilitar ...

Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...

. Recognition of these states varies. Transnistria has not received recognition from any UN member state, including

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

. Abkhazia and South Ossetia have received recognition from Russia,

Nicaragua Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the geographically largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, comprising . With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024, it is the third-most populous country in Central America aft ...

Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...

Nauru Nauru, officially the Republic of Nauru, formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island country and microstate in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies within the Micronesia subregion of Oceania, with its nearest neighbour being Banaba (part of ...

and

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

. The Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics had received recognition from Russia, Syria, and

North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders China and Russia to the north at the Yalu River, Yalu (Amnok) an ...

before their unrecognized annexation by Russia.

Central Asia

North Caucasus

South Caucasus

* } , , *

Armenian Revolutionary Federation The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (, abbr. ARF (ՀՅԴ) or ARF-D), also known as Dashnaktsutyun (Armenians, Armenian: Դաշնակցություն, Literal translation, lit. "Federation"), is an Armenian nationalism, Armenian nationalist a ...

, , 20 February 1988, , 12 May 1994, , The secessionist conflict leads to '' de facto'' independence of

Republic of Artsakh Artsakh ( ), officially the Republic of Artsakh or the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh ( ), was a breakaway state in the South Caucasus whose territory was internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan. Between 1991 and 2023, Artsakh cont ...

(Nagorno-Karabakh Republic)., , 28,000–38,000 killed , - , South Ossetia war (1991–1992) , ,

, , (1992) , , 5 January 1991, , 24 June 1992, , The separatist conflict leads to

's de facto independence from Georgia., , 1,000 killed , - , 1991–1992 Georgian coup d'état , , Rebel factions of the National Guard
Mkhedrioni flag

Mkhedrioni
Tetri Artsivi
Merab Kostava Society
Union of Afghans
Replaced on 2 January by:
Military Council
Supported by:

*

Transcaucasian Military District The Transcaucasian Military District, a military district of the Soviet Armed Forces, traces its history to May 1921 and the incorporation of First Republic of Armenia, Armenia, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Azerbaijan, and Democratic Republic ...

, , National Guard of Georgia
Black Pantyhose Battalion
Lemi
Supported by:
, , 22 December 1991 , , 6 January 1992 , , A military coup against Georgian President Zviad Gamsakhurdia results in him fleeing to Chechnya , , 113 killed , - , Georgian Civil War
, , Supported by:
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria , , Supported by:
, , 6 January 1992, , 31 December 1993, , A

civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...

between the post-coup Georgian government of

Eduard Shevardnadze Eduard Ambrosis dze Shevardnadze ( ka, ედუარდ ამბროსის ძე შევარდნაძე; 25 January 1928 – 7 July 2014) was a Soviet and Georgian politician and diplomat who governed Georgia (country), Georgi ...

and supporters of ousted President Zviad Gamsakhurdia results in Gamsakhurdia's defeat with Russian military support for Shevardnadze., , 2,000 killed (including coup) , - , War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) , , , ,

Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus
Supported by:
, , 14 August 1992 , , 30 September 1993 , , Abkhaz separatism leads to the de facto independence of

from

., , 10,000–30,000 killed , - , Ganja Uprising , , Huseynov militia
Supported by:
, , Azerbaijani Government
APFP , , 4 June 1993 , , 15 June 1993 , , A mutiny against Azerbaijani President Abulfaz Elchibey replaces him with

Heydar Aliyev Heydar Alirza oghlu Aliyev (10 May 1923 – 12 December 2003) was an Azerbaijani politician who was a Soviet party boss in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 1969 to 1982, and the third president of Azerbaijan from October 1993 to ...

, , Unknown , - , 1995 Azerbaijani coup attempt , , Special Purpose Police Unit
Turkish putschists
Supported by:

Nationalist Movement Party The Nationalist Movement Party, or alternatively translated as Nationalist Action Party (, MHP), is a Turkish Far-right politics, far-right, ultranationalism, ultranationalist Political parties in Turkey, political party. The group is often de ...

, ,

Government of Azerbaijan The politics of Azerbaijan take place in an Authoritarianism, authoritarian system where elections are not free and fair, political opponents are repressed, civil rights are limited, human rights in Azerbaijan, human rights abuses are widespread ...

Azerbaijani Armed Forces The Azerbaijani Armed Forces () is the military of the Azerbaijan, Republic of Azerbaijan. It was re-established according to the country's Law of the Armed Forces on 9 October 1991. The original Azerbaijan Democratic Republic's armed forces were ...

Supported by:

Government of Turkey The Government of Turkey () is the Central government, national government of Turkey. It is governed as a unitary state under a presidential system, presidential representative democracy and a Constitution of Turkey, constitutional republic wit ...

, , 13 March 1995 , , 17 March 1996 , , A failed attempt to reinstall former president Abulfaz Elchibey , , 31 killed , - , War in Abkhazia (1998) , , n

separatists Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, regional, governmental, or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seekin ...

* White Legion * Mkhedrioni *

Forest Brothers The guerrilla war in the Baltic states was an insurgency waged by Baltic states, Baltic (Latvian partisans, Latvian, Lithuanian partisans, Lithuanian and Estonian partisans, Estonian) partisans against the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1956. Known ...

, , , , 18 May 1998, , 26 May 1998, , Ethnic Georgians launched an insurgency against the

n secessionist government., , 100 killed , - , 1998 Georgian attempted mutiny , , Georgian Government
Georgian Army
Georgian Police , , Mutineers from the Senaki Military Brigade
Zviadists , , 18 October 1998 , , 19 October 1998 , , An abortive mutiny led by pro-Gamsakhurdia officers from the Senaki Military Brigade to remove new President Eduard Shevardnadze from power. , , 5 killed , - , 2001 Kodori crisis , , Chechen division under Gelayev
Georgian guerrillas , , * Abkhaz military , , 4 October 2001, , 18 October 2001, , Georgian guerrillas unsuccessfully try to regain control over Abkhazia with the help of Chechen fighters., , At least 40 killed , - , Pankisi Gorge crisis , ,

Supported by:

, , Chechen separatists

Mujahideen in Chechnya

Other jihadists , , November 2000, , October 2002, , An incursion by

Al-Qaeda , image = Flag of Jihad.svg , caption = Jihadist flag, Flag used by various al-Qaeda factions , founder = Osama bin Laden{{Assassinated, Killing of Osama bin Laden , leaders = {{Plainlist, * Osama bin Lad ...

forces into Georgia on behalf of Chechen rebels fighting in the North Caucasus. They were forced out in 2004 by Georgian forces with American and Russian backing., , Unknown , - , 2004 South Ossetian clashes , ,

, ,

, , 7 July 2004, , 5 November 2004, , Clashes between Georgian and South Ossetian troops result in several deaths., , 22 killed , - , 2006 Kodori crisis , ,

Interior Ministry of Georgia * Police of Georgia , , Monadire , , 22 July 2006, , 28 July 2006, , Georgian police and special forces drive a local rebellious militia out of the Georgian-controlled

Kodori Valley , , photo = , photo_caption = , map = Caucasus mountains#Georgia#Georgia Abkhazia , map_image = , map_caption = , location = , country_type = Internationally recognised ...

in Abkhazia., , 1 killed , - ,

, , , , , , 1 August 2008, , 16 August 2008, , A war between Georgia on one side and

and

on the other side confirms the de facto independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and leads to their recognition by

and

., , 500 killed , - , 2009 Georgian mutiny , , Georgian Army
Georgian Police , , Mutineers from the Mukhrovani Separate Tank Battalion , , 5 May 2009, , 5 May 2009, , An alleged abortive mutiny by a Georgian Army tank battalion based in Mukhrovani village with a goal of removing President Saakashvili from power., , None killed , - , 2010 Mardakert clashes , , , ,
, , 18 June 2010, , 1 September 2010, , Sporadic border war on the Armenian–Azerbaijan border and at the line of contact between the Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan., , 7–8 killed , - , 2014 Abkhazian Revolution , Anti-Ankvab protesters , Government of President , 27 May 2014 , 1 June 2014 , Series of protests that resulted in the resignation of then President Alexander Ankvab , None killed , - , 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict , , , ,
, , 1 April 2016, , 5 April 2016, , Armenian and Azerbaijani forces fight a four-day long conflict along the border of the unrecognized

. Azerbaijani forces make minor territorial gains, some of which are retaken by Armenian forces before the end of the conflict., , 400–1,600 killed , - , July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes , , , , , , 12 July 2020, , 16 July 2020, , Armenian and Azerbaijani forces engage in border clashes along the

Tavush Province Tavush (, ) is a administrative divisions of Armenia, province of Armenia located at the northeast of Armenia, bordered by Georgia (country), Georgia from the north and Azerbaijan from the east. Internally, Tavush borders the Gegharkunik Province ...

of Armenia and Tovuz District of Azerbaijan. The death of Azerbaijani major general

Polad Hashimov Polad Israyil oghlu Hashimov (; 2 January 1975 – 14 July 2020) was an Azerbaijanis, Azerbaijani military officer, National Hero of Azerbaijan and a major general who served as the Deputy Commander and the Chief of Staff of the 3rd Army Corps ...

sparks the July 2020 Azerbaijani protests. Turkey and Azerbaijan organize large-scale military exercises following the clashes, and tensions persist until the beginning of the

Second Nagorno-Karabakh War The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War was an armed conflict in 2020 that took place in the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh and the Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh, surrounding occupied territories. It was a major esca ...

2 months later., , 29–133 killed , - ,

, ,
(alleged by Armenia)
Syrian mercenaries , ,
, , 27 September 2020, , 10 November 2020, , Azerbaijan retakes most of the territories previously controlled by the

. Russian peacekeepers introduced into the remaining disputed area., , 7,000 killed , - , Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis , , , , , , 12 May 2021, , present, , Border clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia., , 353 killed , - ,

Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh The blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh was an event in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. The Nagorno-Karabakh, region was disputed between Azerbaijan and the List of states with limited recognition, breakaway Republic of Artsakh, Diplomatic recognition, i ...

, , , , Russian peacekeepers ---- , , 12 December 2022 , , 30 September 2023 , , Azerbaijan blockades the Republic of Artsakh., , Unknown , - ,

2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh Between 19 and 20 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a large-scale military offensive against the political status of Nagorno-Karabakh, self-declared breakaway state of Republic of Artsakh, Artsakh, a move seen as a violation of the 2020 Nago ...

, ,

Azerbaijan Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...

, , Artsakh , , 19 September 2023 , , 20 September 2023, , Azerbaijan launches an attack on the Republic of Artsakh after nine months of blockade. The Artsakh Defence Army disbands, the government of the Republic of Artsakh agrees to dissolve itself entirely by January 1, 2024, and almost the entire population of Artsakh flees to Armenia., , 200 killed , - , 2024 Abkhazian Protests , Coordination Council for Overcoming the Political Crisis: * Forum for the National Unity of Abkhazia *Abkhaz People's Movement *Sovereignty Protection Committee * Aruaa * Apsny * Our Capital ,

Government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...

: *

President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...

Parliament In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...

Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...

* Internal Affairs Ministry * State Security Service Supported by: * Amtsakhara * Aitaira , 1 November 2024 , 19 November 2024 , Demonstrations and protests led to the resignation of President Aslan Bzhania and Prime Minister Alexander Ankvab , None Killed

Eastern Europe

Notes

References

{{Russian conflicts Aftermath of the Cold War Asia-related lists * Dissolution of the Soviet Union Europe-related lists

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

Conflicts Conflicts