''Amanita pantherina'', also known as the panther cap, false blusher, and the panther amanita due to its similarity to the true blusher (''

Amanita rubescens The blusher is the common name for several closely related species of the genus ''Amanita''. ''A. rubescens'' (the blushing amanita) is found in Eurasia and ''A. novinupta'' (the new bride blushing amanita or blushing bride) is found ...

''), is a species of

fungus A fungus (: fungi , , , or ; or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and mold (fungus), molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one ...

found in Eurasia with poisonous and

psychoactive A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, mind-altering drug, consciousness-altering drug, psychoactive substance, or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that alters psychological functioning by modulating central nervous system acti ...

properties.

Description

The

cap A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head co ...

is wide, hemispheric at first, then

convex Convex or convexity may refer to: Science and technology * Convex lens, in optics Mathematics * Convex set, containing the whole line segment that joins points ** Convex polygon, a polygon which encloses a convex set of points ** Convex polytop ...

to plano-convex, deep brown to hazel-brown to pale ochraceous brown, densely distributed warts that are pure white to sordid cream, minutely verruculose, floccose, easily removable. Viscid when wet, with a short striate margin. The flesh is white, unchanging when injured. The

gills A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are ...

are adnexed to free, close to crowded, white becoming greyish, truncate. The spores are white in deposit, smooth, broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid to elongate, inamyloid, infrequently globose. 8–14 x 6–10 μm. The stipe is 5–15 cm long × .6–3 cm wide, subcylindric, somewhat narrowing upward, white, becoming slightly tannish in age, stuffed then hollow, finely floccose becoming smooth above the

ring (The) Ring(s) may refer to: * Ring (jewellery), a round band, usually made of metal, worn as ornamental jewelry * To make a sound with a bell, and the sound made by a bell Arts, entertainment, and media Film and TV * ''The Ring'' (franchise), a ...

, and with small appressed squamules or creamy floccose material below. The volva is white, becoming grey with age, forming one or sometimes two narrow hoop-like rings just above the bulbous base. The flesh is white, unchanging when injured. The odour is unpleasant or like raw potatoes.

Identifying features

Other than the brownish cap with white warts, distinguishing features of ''A. pantherina'' include the collar-like roll of volval tissue at the top of the basal bulb, and the elliptical, inamyloid spores. Unlike '' A. rubescens'', the panther cap does not color red/pink ("blush") when the flesh is damaged, hence its name "false blusher". This is a key feature in differentiating both species.

Distribution and habitat

The panther cap is an uncommon mushroom, found in both

deciduous In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...

, especially

beech Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...

and, less frequently,

conifer Conifers () are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a sin ...

ous woodland and rarely meadows throughout Europe, western Asia in late summer and autumn. It has also been recorded from

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...

, where it is thought to have been accidentally introduced with trees imported from Europe and Asia. It is an

ectomycorrhiza An ectomycorrhiza (from Greek ἐκτός ', "outside", μύκης ', "fungus", and ῥίζα ', "root"; ectomycorrhizas or ectomycorrhizae, abbreviated EcM) is a form of symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or mycobio ...

l fungus, living in root

symbiosis Symbiosis (Ancient Greek : living with, companionship < : together; and ''bíōsis'': living) is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction, between two organisms of different species. The two organisms, termed symbionts, can fo ...

with a tree, deriving

photosynthesis Photosynthesis ( ) is a system of biological processes by which photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabo ...

ed nutrients from it and providing soil nutrients in return.

Toxicity

''A. pantherina'' is toxic, more so than '' A. muscaria''. It can cause

diarrhea Diarrhea (American English), also spelled diarrhoea or diarrhœa (British English), is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements in a day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration d ...

vomiting Vomiting (also known as emesis, puking and throwing up) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteritis, pre ...

, and

hyperhidrosis Hyperhidrosis is a medical condition in which a person exhibits excessive perspiration, sweating, more than is required for the Thermoregulation, regulation of body temperature. Although it is primarily a physical burden, hyperhidrosis can deterio ...

, which can lead to severe dehydration. Varieties ''multisquamosa'' and ''velatipes'' are considered poisonous.

Psychoactive use

''A. pantherina'' contains the psychoactive compounds

ibotenic acid Ibotenic acid or (''S'')-2-amino-2-(3-hydroxyisoxazol-5-yl)acetic acid, also referred to as ibotenate, is a naturally occurring alpha-amino acid found in certain ''Amanita'' mushrooms, that primarily acts as a potent glutamate receptor agonist ...

and muscimol, two psychoactive constituents which can cause effects such as

hallucination A hallucination is a perception in the absence of an external stimulus that has the compelling sense of reality. They are distinguishable from several related phenomena, such as dreaming ( REM sleep), which does not involve wakefulness; pse ...

s, synaesthesia,

euphoria Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and da ...

dysphoria Dysphoria (; ) is a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction. It is the semantic opposite of euphoria. In a psychiatric context, dysphoria may accompany depression, anxiety, or agitation. In psychiatry Intense states of distress and uneas ...

and

retrograde amnesia In neurology, retrograde amnesia (RA) is the inability to access memories or information from before an injury or disease occurred. RA differs from a similar condition called anterograde amnesia (AA), which is the inability to form new memories f ...

. The effects of muscimol and ibotenic acid most closely resemble that of a Z drug, like Ambien at high doses, and not a classical psychedelic, e.g.

psilocybin Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a natural product, naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and Investigational New Drug, investigational drug found in more than List of psilocybin mushroom ...

. ''A. pantherina'' is used as an

entheogen Entheogens are psychoactive substances used in spiritual and religious contexts to induce altered states of consciousness. Hallucinogens such as the psilocybin found in so-called "magic" mushrooms have been used in sacred contexts since ancie ...

much less often than its much more distinguishable relative '' A. muscaria,'' largely due to being less recognizable and far more potent. ''A. muscaria'' contains a higher concentration of ibotenic acid. While ibotenic acid is mostly broken down by the body into muscimol, what remains of the ibotenic acid is believed to cause the majority of dysphoric effects of consuming psychedelic ''Amanita'' species. Ibotenic acid is also a scientifically important

neurotoxin Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nervous tissue, nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insult (medical), insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function ...

used in lab research as a brain-lesioning agent in mice. As with other wild-growing mushrooms, the ratio of ibotenic acid to muscimol depends on countless external factors, including: season, age, and habitat—and percentages will naturally vary from mushroom to mushroom—with dark brown ''A. pantherina'' specimens having a greater concentration of ibotenic acid.

Legal status

''A. muscaria'' and ''A. pantherina'' are illegal to buy, sell, or possess in the Netherlands since December 2008. Possession of amounts larger than 0.5 g dried or 5 g fresh lead to a criminal charge.Openbaar Ministerie (12-01-2008)
Paddoverbod van kracht
. Retrieved 5 May 2016.

Gallery

Amanita pantherina 100.jpg Amanita pantherina MdE 1.jpg Amanita.pantherina2.-.lindsey.jpg Amanita pantherina.jpg Amanita Ameripantherina.jpg, ''Amanita ameripathera'' Spore_print_Amanita_Pantherina.jpg, Spore print

References

External links

Webpages on ''Amanita species''
by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang
Amanita on erowid.org

by IPCS INCHEM {{Taxonbar, from=Q45547 pantherina Fungi of Asia Fungi of Europe Poisonous fungi Psychoactive fungi Fungi described in 1846 Taxa named by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle Fungus species