Panaetius (; ; – ) of

Rhodes Rhodes (; ) is the largest of the Dodecanese islands of Greece and is their historical capital; it is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, ninth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Administratively, the island forms a separ ...

was an

ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

Stoic philosopher. He was a pupil of

Diogenes of Babylon Diogenes of Babylon (also known as Diogenes of Seleucia; ; ; c. 230 – c. 150/140 BC) was a Stoic philosopher. He was the head of the Stoic school in Athens, and he was one of three philosophers sent to Rome in 155 BC. He wrote many works, but ...

and

Antipater of Tarsus Antipater of Tarsus (; died 130/129 BC) was a Stoic philosopher. He was the pupil and successor of Diogenes of Babylon as leader of the Stoic school, and was the teacher of Panaetius. He wrote works on the gods and on divination, and in ethics h ...

Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...

, before moving to

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

where he did much to introduce Stoic doctrines to the city, thanks to the patronage of

Scipio Aemilianus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (185 BC – 129 BC), known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a Roman general and statesman noted for his military exploits in the Third Punic War against Carthage and durin ...

. After the death of Scipio in 129 BC, he returned to the Stoic school in Athens, and was its last undisputed scholarch. With Panaetius, Stoicism became much more eclectic. His most famous work was his ''On Duties'', the principal source used by

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

in his own work of the same name.

Life

Panaetius, son of Nicagoras, was born around 185–180 BC, into an old and eminent Rhodian family. He is said to have been a pupil of the linguist Crates of Mallus, who taught in

Pergamum Pergamon or Pergamum ( or ; ), also referred to by its modern Greek form Pergamos (), was a rich and powerful ancient Greek city in Aeolis. It is located from the modern coastline of the Aegean Sea on a promontory on the north side of the river ...

, and moved to

where he attended the lectures of Critolaus and

Carneades Carneades (; , ''Karneadēs'', "of Carnea"; 214/3–129/8 BC) was a Greek philosopher, perhaps the most prominent head of the Skeptical Academy in Ancient Greece. He was born in Cyrene. By the year 159 BC, he had begun to attack many previo ...

, but attached himself principally to the Stoic

and his disciple

. Although it is often thought that he was chosen by the people of Lindos, on Rhodes, to be the priest of Poseidon Hippios, this was actually an honour bestowed upon his grandfather, who was also called Panaetius, son of Nicagoras P. E. Easterling, Bernard Knox, (1989), ''The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Part 3'', p. 196. Cambridge University Press Probably through Gaius Laelius, who had attended the lectures of Diogenes and then of Panaetius, he was introduced to

and, like

Polybius Polybius (; , ; ) was a Greek historian of the middle Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , a universal history documenting the rise of Rome in the Mediterranean in the third and second centuries BC. It covered the period of 264–146 ...

before him, gained his friendship. Both Panaetius and Polybius accompanied him on the Roman embassy that Scipio headed to the principal monarchs and polities of the Hellenistic east in 139–138 BC. Along with Polybius, he became a member of the Scipionic Circle. He returned with Scipio to

, where he did much to introduce Stoic doctrines and Greek philosophy. He had a number of distinguished Romans as pupils, amongst them Q. Scaevola the augur and Q. Aelius Tubero the Stoic. After the death of Scipio in spring 129 BC, he resided by turns in Athens and Rome, but chiefly in Athens, where he succeeded Antipater of Tarsus as head of the Stoic school. The right of citizenship was offered him by the Athenians, but he refused it. His chief pupil in philosophy was

Posidonius Posidonius (; , "of Poseidon") "of Apameia" (ὁ Ἀπαμεύς) or "of Rhodes" (ὁ Ῥόδιος) (), was a Greeks, Greek politician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, historian, mathematician, and teacher native to Apamea (Syria), Apame ...

. He died in Athens sometime in 110/09 BC, the approximate year in which L. Crassus the orator found there no longer Panaetius himself, but his disciple Mnesarchus.

Philosophy

With Panaetius began the new eclectic shaping of Stoic theory; so that even among the

Neoplatonists Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common i ...

he passed for a Platonist. For this reason also he assigned the first place in philosophy to

Physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...

, not to

Logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...

, and appears not to have undertaken any original treatment of the latter. In Physics he gave up the Stoic doctrine of the conflagration of the universe; tried to simplify the division of the faculties of the soul; and doubted the reality of divination.Cicero, ''de Divinatione'', i. 3, ii. 42, 47, ''Academica'', ii. 33, comp. Epiphanius, ''adv. Haeres.'' ii. 9 In

Ethics Ethics is the philosophy, philosophical study of Morality, moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates Normativity, normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches inclu ...

he recognized only a two-fold division of

virtue A virtue () is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be morality, moral, social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "good of humanity" and thus is Value (ethics), valued as an Telos, end purpos ...

, the theoretical and the practical, in contrast to the ''dianoetic'' and the ''ethical'' of

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

Ethics

Panaetius attempted to bring the ultimate goal of life closer to natural impulses, and to show by similes the inseparability of the virtues. Possibly as an answer to a similar criticism of stoicism given by

, he stated virtue alone was not enough if there is no adequate living and health. He argued that the recognition of the moral, as something to be striven after for its own sake, was a fundamental idea in the speeches of

Demosthenes Demosthenes (; ; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and cu ...

. He rejected the doctrine of ''

apatheia In Stoic philosophy, ''apatheia'' (; ) refers to a state of mind in which one is not disturbed by the passions. It might better be translated by the word equanimity than the word indifference. The meaning of the word ''apatheia'' is quite diffe ...

'', and instead affirmed that certain pleasurable sensations could be regarded as in accordance with

nature Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the Ecosphere (planetary), ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the Scientific law, laws, elements and phenomenon, phenomena of the physic ...

. He also insisted that moral definitions should be laid down in such a way that they might be applied by the person who had not yet attained to

wisdom Wisdom, also known as sapience, is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom ha ...

Politics

Panaetius believed the polis was born from a

social contract In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment, it ...

among individuals wishing to retain their

private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental Capacity (law), legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by a state entity, and from Collective ownership ...

.Capelle, 2020, p.355 He saw community as natural, and argued for treating even slaves with justice and proportionality. Despite his Platonic influence, however, he rejected the Platonic republic for considering it unrealistic and unnatural. He followed his colleague

in seeing the Roman republic as an ideal combination of the three traditional forms of rule, incorporating the best of

monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...

aristocracy Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocracy (class), aristocrats. Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense Economy, economic, Politics, political, and soc ...

and

democracy Democracy (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitiv ...

without falling in their shortcomings. Panetius went further and exalted Roman

imperialism Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of Power (international relations), power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power (diplomatic power and cultura ...

as a enterprise of justice, as the conquest and assimilation of barbarian peoples transformed their tribal anarchy into peace and order, preventing barbarians from abusing each other and subjecting them to the same law ruling Romans. His idea of justice was the rule of the most virtuous, not the strongest, with the conqueror being obligated to the conquered. Panaetius considered war inhuman, but contemplated

just war The just war theory () is a doctrine, also referred to as a tradition, of military ethics that aims to ensure that a war is morally justifiable through a series of criteria, all of which must be met for a war to be considered just. It has bee ...

as a last resource to achieve peace and justice whenever peaceful means were impossible. This entailed two forms of just war, for retribution and for defense, both of which had to be officially declared. As conquest must be beneficial for everybody involved, he established the importance of treating the defeated in a civilized way, especially those who surrendered, even after a prolonged conflict.

Writings

''On Duties''

The principal work of Panaetius was, without doubt, his treatise ''On Duties'' ( 'Peri tou Kathēkontos' (Classical) or 'Peri tou Kathikodos' (Modern)) composed in three books. In this he proposed to investigate, first, what was moral or immoral; then, what was useful or not useful; and lastly, how the apparent conflict between the moral and the useful was to be decided; for, as a Stoic, he could only regard this conflict as apparent not real. The third investigation he had expressly promised at the end of the third book, but had not carried out; and his disciple

seems to have only timidly and imperfectly supplied what was needed. Cicero wrote his own work '' On Duties'' in deliberate imitation of Panaetius, and stated that in the third section of the subject that he did not follow Posidonius, but instead that he had completed independently and without assistance what Panaetius had left untouched. To judge from the insignificant character of the deviations, to which Cicero himself calls attention, as for example, the attempt to define moral obligation, the completion of the imperfect division into three parts, the rejection of unnecessary discussions, small supplementary additions, in the first two books Cicero has borrowed the scientific contents of his work from Panaetius, without any essential alterations. Cicero seems to have been induced to follow Panaetius, passing by earlier attempts of the Stoics to investigate the philosophy of morals, not merely by the superiority of his work in other respects, but especially by the effort that prevailed throughout it, laying aside abstract investigations and paradoxical definitions, to demonstrate the philosophy of morals in its application to life. Generally speaking, Panaetius, following

Xenocrates Xenocrates (; ; c. 396/5314/3 BC) of Chalcedon was a Greek philosopher, mathematician, and leader ( scholarch) of the Platonic Academy from 339/8 to 314/3 BC. His teachings followed those of Plato, which he attempted to define more closely, of ...

Theophrastus Theophrastus (; ; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek Philosophy, philosopher and Natural history, naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum (classical), Lyceum, the ...

, Dicaearchus, and especially

Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...

, had softened down the severity of the earlier Stoics, and, without giving up their fundamental definitions, had modified them so as to be capable of being applied to the conduct of life, and clothed them in the garb of eloquence. That

has not reproduced the entire contents of the three books of Panaetius, we see from a fragment, which is not found in Cicero, preserved by

Aulus Gellius Aulus Gellius (c. 125after 180 AD) was a Roman author and grammarian, who was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He was educated in Athens, after which he returned to Rome. He is famous for his ''Attic Nights'', a commonplace book, ...

, and which acquaints us with Panaetius's treatment of his subject in its

rhetorical Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse (trivium) along with grammar and logic/dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or writ ...

aspects.

Other works

Panaetius also wrote treatises concerning ''On Cheerfulness''; ''On the Magistrates''; ''On Providence''; ''On Divination''; a political treatise used by Cicero in his ''De Republica''; and a letter to Quintus Aelius Tubero.Cicero, ''De Finibus'', iv. 9, 23 His work ''On Philosophical Schools'' appears to have been rich in facts and critical remarks, and the notices which we have about

Socrates Socrates (; ; – 399 BC) was a Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek philosopher from Classical Athens, Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and as among the first moral philosophers of the Ethics, ethical tradition ...

, and on the books of Plato and others of the Socratic school, given on the authority of Panaetius, were probably taken from that work.

Notes

References

* * * * * Aristotle. “Book VI”. Nicomachean Ethics. *