Oromo People

The Oromo (pron. Oromo: ''Oromoo'') are a Cushitic ethnic group native to the Oromia region of Ethiopia and parts of Northern Kenya, who speak the Oromo language (also called ''Afaan Oromoo'' or ''Oromiffa''), which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia and represent a large portion of Ethiopia's population.

The Oromo people traditionally used the ''gadaa'' system as the primary form of governance.Harold G. Marcu
A History of Ethiopia
University of California Press (1994) pp. 55 Google Books A leader is elected by the ''gadaa'' system and their term lasts eight years, with an election taking place at the end of those eight years. Although most modern Oromos are Muslims and Christians, about 3% practice Waaqeffanna, the native ancient monotheistic religion of Oromos.

Origins and nomenclature

The Oromo people are one of the oldest cushitic peoples inhabiting the Horn of Africa, as there is still no correct estimate of the history of their settlement in the region, but many indications suggest that they have been living in north Kenya and south-east Ethiopia for more than 7000 years until the great expansion in 1520 where then they expanded to the south-west and some locations in the north. An evidence is given that they are the womb from which most of the eastern Cushitic peoples emerged , such as the Somalis, Afaris, and the Saho in Eritrea and Sudan.

Both older and subsequent colonial era documents mention and refer to the Oromo people as ''Galla'', which has now developed derogatory connotations, but these documents were generally written by members of other ethnic groups.Ernesta Cerulli (1956), ''Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and its Borderland'', International African Institute, Routledge, , Chapter: History & Traditions of Origin The first verifiable record mentioning the Oromo people by a European cartographer is in the map made by the Italian Fra Mauro in 1460, which uses the term ''Galla''.

However, Fra Mauro's term ''Galla'' was the most used until the early 20th century. The term, stated Juxon Barton in 1924, was in use for Oromo people by Abyssinians and Arabs. It was a term for a river and a forest, as well as for the pastoral people established in the highlands of southern Ethiopia. This historical information, according to Mohammed Hassen, is consistent with the written and oral traditions of the Somalis.Juxon Barton (September 1924)
The Origins of the Galla and Somali Tribes
The Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society, No. 19, pages 6–7 A journal published by the International African Institute suggests it is an Oromo word (adopted by neighbors), for there is a word, , meaning 'wandering' or 'to go home' in their language.Claude Sumne
Ethiopian Philosophy: The treatise of Zärʼa Yaʻe̳quo and Wäldä Ḥe̳ywåt
Addis Ababa University, (1976) pp. 149 footnotes 312, Quote: "D'Abbadie claimed that the name Galla was explained to him as derived from a war cry, and used by the Gallas of themselves at war."

The Oromo never called themselves ''Galla'' and resist its use because the term is considered derogatory. They traditionally identified themselves by one of their clans (''s'') and now use the common umbrella term of ''Oromo'' which connotes "free born people". The word Oromo is derived from meaning ' heChildren of Orma', or 'Sons of Strangers', or 'Man, stranger'. The first known use of the word ''Oromo'' to refer to the ethnic group is traceable to 1893.

After Fra Mauro's mention, there is a profusion of literature about the peoples of this region, including the Oromo, particularly mentioning their wars and resistance to religious conversion, primarily by European explorers and Catholic Christian missionaries. The earliest primary account of Oromo ethnography is the 16th-century "History of Galla" by Christian monk Bahrey who comes from the Sidama country of Gammo, written in the Ge'ez language.International African Institut
Ethnographic Survey of Africa, Volume 5, Issue 2
(1969) pp. 11 According to an 1861 book by D'Abbadie, the Oromo are mentioned as the Galla in several maps and historical events. One mention of the Oromo before the Oromo expansion was when the Oromo led a campaign against the Sultanate of Ifat, the campaign being named Meeshii Dir Dhabi. The Oromo led an expedition against the Issa Dir clan who inhabited the great city. The Cisse clan would be victorious, ending the campaign. The Cisse would rule the city for the next two centuries till the expansion/Migration of the Oromo. One inscription of the Oromo from the 14th century notes that the Oromo inhabited Ethiopia long before the Oromo migration and founded several civilisations, including the Wej, Bale, Arsi, and Dawaro. Sihabudin also mentioned that the Werra Qallo, who now inhabit Hararghe, were living in Dawaro long before the Oromo migration. Historical evidence suggests that the Oromo people were already established in the southern highlands in or before the 15th century and that at least some Oromo people were interacting with other Ethiopian ethnic groups. According to Alessandro Triulzi, the Oromo would get in contact and interact with the Nilo Saharan Groups.

Historical linguistics and comparative ethnology studies suggest that the Oromo people probably originated around the lakes Lake Chew Bahir and Lake Chamo. They are a Cushitic people who have inhabited the East and Northeast Africa since at least the early 1st millennium. The aftermath of the sixteenth century Ethiopian–Adal war led to Oromos to move to the north. The Harla were assimilated by the Oromo in Ethiopia. While Oromo people have lived in the region for a long time, the ethnic mixture of peoples who have lived here is unclear. The Oromos increased their numbers through Oromization (''Meedhicca'', ''Mogasa'' and ''Gudifacha''), assimilation, and forced assimilation of other ethnic groups, as well as the inclusion of mixed peoples (''Gabbaro''). The native ancient names of the territories were replaced by the name of the Oromo clans who conquered it while the people were made Gabbaros.

History

Pre-19th century

The earliest known documented and detailed history of the Oromo people was by the Ethiopian monk Bahrey who wrote ''Zenahu lä Galla'' in 1593, though the synonymous term ''Gallas'' was mentioned in maps or elsewhere much earlier. After the 16th century, they are mentioned more often, such as in the records left by Abba Paulos, Joao Bermudes, Jerónimo Lobo, Galawdewos, Sarsa Dengel and others. These records suggest that the Oromo were pastoral people in their history who stayed together. Their animal herds expanded rapidly, and they needed more grazing lands. They began migrating, not together, but after separating. They lacked kings, and had elected leaders called based on a system of government instead. By the late 16th century, two major Oromo confederations emerged: Afre and Sadaqa, which respectively refer to ''four'' and ''three'' in their language, with Afre emerging from four older clans, and Sadaqa out of three. These Oromo confederations were originally located in southern Ethiopia, specifically the northwest of the Borena Zone near Lake Abaya, but started moving north in the 16th century in what is termed as the "Great Oromo Migration".W.A. Degu
"Chapter 7 Political Development in the Pre-colonial Horn of Africa"
, "The State, the Crisis of State Institutions and Refugee Migration in the Horn of Africa: The Cases of Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia", Thela Thesis (Amsterdam, 2002), page 142

According to Richard Pankhurst, a British-born Ethiopian historian, this migration is linked to the first incursions into inland Horn of Africa by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim. According to historian Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst, the migration was one of the consequences of the fierce Ethiopian–Adal war which killed a lot of people and depopulated the regions near the Galla lands, but also probably a result of droughts in their traditional homelands. Further, they acquired horses and their system helped coordinate well-equipped Oromo warriors who enabled fellow Oromos to advance and settle into newer regions starting in the 1520s. This expansion continued through the 17th century.

Historically, Afaan Oromo-speaking people used their own Gadaa system of governance. Oromos also had a number of independent kingdoms, which they shared with the Sidama people. Among these were the Gibe region kingdoms of Gera, Gomma, Garo, Gumma, Jimma, Leeqa-Nekemte and Limmu-Ennarea.

They would also establish dynasties such as the Yejju dynasty that would be de-facto rulers of Ethiopian Empire from 1769-1855 this period was known as Zemene Mesafint, they would particularly have control over the provinces of Begemder and Gojjam.Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture, pg,275 Notable rulers such as Gugsa of Yejju found cities like Debre Tabor and for a period even change the official language of the empire from Amharic to Oromiffa during the rule of the half-Oromo emperor Iyoas I.

Oromos would also establish several Muslim states and dynasties in what was Wollo Province: six to be exact; this included Qallu, House of the Borana and Gattiroch, the Arreloch, and the two longest and the most important ones: the Yejju dynasty and the Warra Himano, also called the Mahammadoch dynasty.

The Warra Himano (1700–1916) would use Islam as a resistance ideology with vigorous, creative ways to resist the Christian Abyssinian territorial expansion and cultural encroachment. This was the second Muslim Oromo state to be established in Wollo, the first to declare jihad in the name and interest of Islam, the first to adopt the title of ''imam'' for its rulers and the longest lasting one. It reached its zenith of power under Imam Muhammad Ali (1771–1785), a far sighted leader, a resourceful politician and a fervent Muslim who made Sharia the basis of the law in the state.

Under another ruler, Amade II (1815–1838), Wollo would become the most active centre of Islamic teachings in the Horn of Africa. Amade is even reported to have asked Muhammad Ali of Egypt to help him conquer and convert northern Ethiopia and its peoples. He was considered by many to be one of the most important, if not the most important, Muslim ruler of Ethiopia. By his time, Wollo had become a veritable Islamic state in the heartland of Christian Ethiopia; the rise of Muslim Oromo power in Wollo was instrumental in the revival of Christian nationalism in Abyssinia.

The Warra Himano dynasty would convert many Amhara Christians to Islam during its rule, and at the zenith of its power Mammadoch dynasty had their hegemony accepted in the various parts of Wollo: Ambasel, Qallu, Borena, Wore-Illu and Amhara Sayint. The territory extended from the Abbay river in the west to the Qallu and Garfa area in the east and the Wänchit and Jama rivers in the south. Moreover, under the leadership of Kollasse Amade, the Mammedoch had even started to take part in the power struggle among the lords of northern Ethiopia at Gonder.https://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11394/7290/melaku_phd_arts_2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page107

Notable rulers such as Ras Mikael of Wollo King of Wollo and the uncrowned emperor of Ethiopia, Lij Iyasu (1913–1916), descend from this ruling family.

Both peaceful integration and violent competition between Oromos and other neighboring ethnicities such as the Amhara, Sidama, Afar and the Somali affected politics in the Oromo community. Between 1500 and 1800, there were waves of wars and struggle between highland Christians, coastal Muslims and the polytheist population in the Horn of Africa. This caused a major redistribution of populations. The northern, eastern and western movement of the Oromos from the south around 1535 mirrored the large-scale expansion by Somalis inland. The 1500–1800 period also saw relocation of the Amhara people, and helped influence contemporary ethnic politics in Ethiopia.

According to oral and literary evidence, the Borana Oromo clan and Garre Somali clan mutually victimized each other in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly near their eastern borders. There were also periods of relative peace.Paul Trevor William Baxter, Jan Hultin, Alessandro Triulzi
"Being and Becoming Oromo: Historical and Anthropological Enquiries'
Nordic Africa Institute (1996) pp. 123–124Aṣma Giyorgis, Bairu Tafl
"Aṣma Giyorgis and His Work: History of the Gāllā and the Kingdom of Šawā"
Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH (1987) pp. 439 Google BooksGünther Schle
''Identities on the Move: Clanship and Pastoralism in Northern Kenya''
Manchester University Press (1989) pp. 38–40 Google Books

Demographics

The Oromos are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia (35.8% of the population), numbering about 40.6 million. They are predominantly concentrated in the Oromia Region in central Ethiopia, the largest region in the country by both population and area. They speak Afaan Oromoo, the official language of Oromia. Oromos constitute the third most populous ethnic group among Africans as a whole and the most populous among Horners specifically.

Oromo also have a notable presence in northern Kenya in the Marsabit County, Isiolo County and Tana River County Totaling to about 656,636: 276,236 Borana 141,200 Gabra 158,000 Orma 45,200 Sakuye 20,000 Waata 16,000 Munyo Yaya. There are also Oromo in the former Wollo and Tigray provinces of Ethiopia.Oromo people
Encyclopædia Britannica

Subgroups

The Oromo consist of two major branches that break down into an assortment of clan families. From west to east: the Borana Oromo, also called the ''Booranaa'', are a semi- pastoralist group living in southern Oromia and northern Kenya. The Borana inhabit the Borena Zone of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia and the former Northern Frontier District (now northern Kenya) of Northern Kenya. They speak a dialect of Afaan Oromo, the Oromo language.
Barentu/Barentoo or (older) ''Baraytuma'' is the other moiety of the Oromo people. The Barentu Oromo inhabit the eastern parts of the Oromia Region in the Zones of West Hararghe, Arsi Zone, Bale Zone, Dire Dawa city, the Jijiga Zone of the Somali Region, Administrative Zone 3 of the Afar Region, Oromia Zone of the Amhara Region, and are also found in the Raya Azebo Aanaas in the Tigray Region.

Language

Oromo is written with Latin characters known as ''Qubee''. The Sapalo script was invented by the Oromo scholar Sheikh Bakri Sapalo (also known by his birth name, Abubaker Usman Odaa) during the 1950s. Oromo serves as one of the official languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari, Dire Dawa, Benishangul-Gumuz and Addis Ababa and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along with Tigrinya.

More than 33.8% of Ethiopia's population are Oromo mother-tongue speakers, which makes it the most widely spoken primary language in Ethiopia. It is also the most widely spoken Cushitic language and the fourth-most widely spoken language of Africa, after Arabic, Hausa and Swahili. Oromo is spoken as a first language by more than 37 million Oromo people in Ethiopia and by an additional half-million in parts of northern and eastern Kenya. It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries, such as South Africa, Libya, Egypt and Sudan.
Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language, such as the Omotic-speaking Bambassi and the Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kwama in western Ethiopia.

Religion

The Oromo followed their traditional religion, Waaqeffanna, and were resistant to religious conversion before assimilation in sultanates and Christian kingdoms. The influential 30-year war from 1529 to 1559 between the three parties – the Oromo who followed Waaqeffanna, the Christians and the Muslims – dissipated the political strengths of all three. The religious beliefs of the Oromo people evolved in this socio-political environment. In the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, Protestant or Catholic missionaries' efforts spread Christianity among the Oromo. Organizations included the Sudan Interior Mission, the Bible Churchmen's Missionary Society, the Seventh-Day Adventists, the United Presbyterian Mission of the USA, the Church Mission to the Jews, Evangeliska Fosterlands-Stiftelsen, Bibeltrogna Vänner, and the Hermannsburg Mission.

In the mid and late 19th century, the Ethiopian emperors were faced with widespread rifts and disputes in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and crippling ethnic and religious divisions that plagued the empire and exposed it to the intervention and meddling of neighboring Muslims (especially Egypt and the Ottoman Empire) and European powers. The emperors that ruled in that period, Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menelik II, thus strove to suppress disunion and schism both within and without the Ethiopian Church and were often intolerant towards other religions. The Wollo Oromo, the Arsi Oromo, and the Tulama Oromo were among those who violently clashed with the Ethiopian expansion in the region in the 19th century and the empire's attempts at enforcing unity through the propagation of Orthodox Christianity, as the majority of these groups were not Christian but Muslims.

In the 2007 Ethiopian census for Oromia region, which included Oromo and some non-Oromo residents, there was a total of 13,107,963 followers of Christianity (8,204,908 Orthodox, 4,780,917 Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 12,835,410 followers of Islam, 887,773 followers of traditional religions, and 162,787 followers of other religions. Accordingly, the Oromia region is between 45% to 40% Christian (8,204,908 or 30.4% Orthodox, 4,780,917 or 17.7% Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 55% to 60% Muslim and 3.3% followers of traditional religions

According to a 2016 estimate by James Minahan, about half of the Oromo people are Sunni Muslim, a third are Ethiopian Orthodox, and the rest are mostly Protestants or follow their traditional religious beliefs. The traditional religion is more common in southern Oromo populations and Christianity more common in and near the urban centers, while Islam is more common near the Somali border and in the north.

Cuisine

Oromo dishes

The Oromos' cuisine consists of various vegetable and meat side dishes and entrées. Oromo do not eat pork. Ancestors of today's Oromo people in a region of Oromia in Ethiopia were the first to cultivate the coffee plant and recognise the energising effect of coffee.


*Foon Akaawwii – minced roasted meat; specially seasoned
*Waaddii – outdoor grilled meat on heat bead or wood fire
*Anchotte – a common dish in the western part of Oromia (Wallaga)
*Baduu – liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained (cheese)
*Maarqaa – porridge like made from wheat, honey, milk, chili and spices
*Chechebsaa – shredded biddena stir-fried with chili powder and cheese
*Qoocco – also known as ''kocho'', it is not the Gurage type of kocho but a different kind; a common dish in the western part of Oromia
*Itto – comprises all sorts of vegetables (tomato, potato, ginger, garlic), meat (lamb)
*Chukkoo – also known as ''Micira''; a sweet flavor of whole grain, seasoned with butter and spices
*Chororsaa – a common dish in the western part of Oromia
*Dokkee – a common dish throughout Oromia state
*Qince – similar to Marqaa but made from shredded grains as opposed to flour
*Qorso (Akaayii) – as snacks in Oromia state
*Dadhii – A drink made from honey
*Farsho – Beer-like Beverage, made from barley
*Buna – Ethiopian coffee

Culture

Gadaa

Oromo people governed themselves in accordance with the Gadaa system long before the 16th century. The system regulates the political, economic, social and religious activities of the community. Oromo were traditionally a culturally homogeneous society with genealogical ties. A male born in the Oromo clan went through five stages of eight years, where his life established his role and status for consideration to a ''Gadaa'' office. Every eight years, the Oromo would choose by consensus nine leaders for the office.

According to Amnesty International, there is a sweeping repression in the Oromo region of Ethiopia. On 12 December 2015, the German broadcaster Deutsche Welle reported violent protests in the Oromo region of Ethiopia in which more than 20 students were killed. According to the report, the students were protesting against the government's re-zoning plan named 'Addis Ababa Master Plan'.

On 2 October 2016, between 55 and 300 festival-goers were massacred at the most sacred and largest event among the Oromo, the Irreechaa cultural thanksgiving festival. In just one day, dozens were killed and many more injured in what will go down in history as one of the darkest days for the Oromo people. Every year, millions of Oromos, the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, gather in Bishoftu for this annual celebration. That year, however, the festive mood quickly turned chaotic after Ethiopian security forces responded to peaceful protests by firing tear gas and live bullets at over two million people surrounded by a lake and cliffs. In the week that followed, angry youth attacked government buildings and private businesses. On 8 October, the government responded with an abusive and far-reaching state of emergency, which was lifted in August 2017. During the state of emergency, security forces arbitrarily detained over 21,000 people.

Notable people

See also

*Irreechaa
*Cushitic languages
*Barentu (Oromo)
* Borana people
*Oromia
* List of Oromo subgroups and clans
*Oromo language
*Oromia zone
*Gadaa

References

Further reading

*
* Tsega Etefa, "Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation". New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
* Mohammed Hassan, "The Oromo of Ethiopia, A History 1570–1860". Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1994.
* Herbert S. Lewis. "A Galla Monarchy: Jimma Abba Jifar, Ethiopia 1830–1932". Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1965.
*
* Temesgen M. Erena, Oromia: 'Civilisation, Colonisation And Underdevelopment, Oromia Quarterly, No.1, July 2002, .

External links

Oromo

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oromo People

Ethnic groups in Ethiopia
Ethnic groups in Kenya
Ethnic groups in Somalia
Cushitic-speaking peoples