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mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
, the order of a finite group is the number of its elements. If a group is not finite, one says that its order is ''infinite''. The ''order'' of an element of a group (also called period length or period) is the order of the subgroup generated by the element. If the group operation is denoted as a multiplication, the order of an element of a group, is thus the smallest positive integer such that , where denotes the identity element of the group, and denotes the product of copies of . If no such exists, the order of is infinite. The order of a group is denoted by or , and the order of an element is denoted by or , instead of \operatorname(\langle a\rangle), where the brackets denote the generated group. Lagrange's theorem states that for any subgroup of a finite group , the order of the subgroup divides the order of the group; that is, is a
divisor In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some integer to produce n. In this case, one also says that n is a multiple of m. An integer n is divisible or evenly divisible by ...
of . In particular, the order of any element is a divisor of .


Example

The symmetric group S3 has the following multiplication table. : This group has six elements, so . By definition, the order of the identity, , is one, since . Each of , , and squares to , so these group elements have order two: . Finally, and have order 3, since , and .


Order and structure

The order of a group ''G'' and the orders of its elements give much information about the structure of the group. Roughly speaking, the more complicated the factorization of , ''G'', , the more complicated the structure of ''G''. For , ''G'', = 1, the group is
trivial Trivia is information and data that are considered to be of little value. It can be contrasted with general knowledge and common sense. Latin Etymology The ancient Romans used the word ''triviae'' to describe where one road split or fork ...
. In any group, only the identity element ''a = e'' has ord(''a)'' = 1. If every non-identity element in ''G'' is equal to its inverse (so that ''a''2 = ''e''), then ord(''a'') = 2; this implies ''G'' is
abelian Abelian may refer to: Mathematics Group theory * Abelian group, a group in which the binary operation is commutative ** Category of abelian groups (Ab), has abelian groups as objects and group homomorphisms as morphisms * Metabelian group, a grou ...
since ab=(ab)^=b^a^=ba. The converse is not true; for example, the (additive) cyclic group Z6 of integers
modulo In computing, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another (called the '' modulus'' of the operation). Given two positive numbers and , modulo (often abbreviated as ) is ...
6 is abelian, but the number 2 has order 3: :2+2+2=6 \equiv 0 \pmod . The relationship between the two concepts of order is the following: if we write :\langle a \rangle = \ for the subgroup generated by ''a'', then :\operatorname (a) = \operatorname(\langle a \rangle). For any integer ''k'', we have :''ak'' = ''e''   if and only if   ord(''a'')
divides In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some integer to produce n. In this case, one also says that n is a multiple of m. An integer n is divisible or evenly divisible b ...
''k''. In general, the order of any subgroup of ''G'' divides the order of ''G''. More precisely: if ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then :ord(''G'') / ord(''H'') = 'G'' : ''H'' where 'G'' : ''H''is called the index of ''H'' in ''G'', an integer. This is Lagrange's theorem. (This is, however, only true when G has finite order. If ord(''G'') = ∞, the quotient ord(''G'') / ord(''H'') does not make sense.) As an immediate consequence of the above, we see that the order of every element of a group divides the order of the group. For example, in the symmetric group shown above, where ord(S3) = 6, the possible orders of the elements are 1, 2, 3 or 6. The following partial converse is true for finite groups: if ''d'' divides the order of a group ''G'' and ''d'' is a
prime number A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that is not a Product (mathematics), product of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime ...
, then there exists an element of order ''d'' in ''G'' (this is sometimes called Cauchy's theorem). The statement does not hold for
composite Composite or compositing may refer to: Materials * Composite material, a material that is made from several different substances ** Metal matrix composite, composed of metal and other parts ** Cermet, a composite of ceramic and metallic materials ...
orders, e.g. the
Klein four-group In mathematics, the Klein four-group is a group with four elements, in which each element is self-inverse (composing it with itself produces the identity) and in which composing any two of the three non-identity elements produces the third one ...
does not have an element of order four). This can be shown by inductive proof. The consequences of the theorem include: the order of a group ''G'' is a power of a prime ''p'' if and only if ord(''a'') is some power of ''p'' for every ''a'' in ''G''. If ''a'' has infinite order, then all non-zero powers of ''a'' have infinite order as well. If ''a'' has finite order, we have the following formula for the order of the powers of ''a'': :ord(''ak'') = ord(''a'') / gcd(ord(''a''), ''k'')Dummit, David; Foote, Richard. ''Abstract Algebra'', , pp. 57 for every integer ''k''. In particular, ''a'' and its inverse ''a''−1 have the same order. In any group, : \operatorname(ab) = \operatorname(ba) There is no general formula relating the order of a product ''ab'' to the orders of ''a'' and ''b''. In fact, it is possible that both ''a'' and ''b'' have finite order while ''ab'' has infinite order, or that both ''a'' and ''b'' have infinite order while ''ab'' has finite order. An example of the former is ''a''(''x'') = 2−''x'', ''b''(''x'') = 1−''x'' with ''ab''(''x'') = ''x''−1 in the group Sym(\mathbb). An example of the latter is ''a''(''x'') = ''x''+1, ''b''(''x'') = ''x''−1 with ''ab''(''x'') = ''x''. If ''ab'' = ''ba'', we can at least say that ord(''ab'') divides lcm(ord(''a''), ord(''b'')). As a consequence, one can prove that in a finite abelian group, if ''m'' denotes the maximum of all the orders of the group's elements, then every element's order divides ''m''.


Counting by order of elements

Suppose ''G'' is a finite group of order ''n'', and ''d'' is a divisor of ''n''. The number of order ''d'' elements in ''G'' is a multiple of φ(''d'') (possibly zero), where φ is Euler's totient function, giving the number of positive integers no larger than ''d'' and coprime to it. For example, in the case of S3, φ(3) = 2, and we have exactly two elements of order 3. The theorem provides no useful information about elements of order 2, because φ(2) = 1, and is only of limited utility for composite ''d'' such as ''d'' = 6, since φ(6) = 2, and there are zero elements of order 6 in S3.


In relation to homomorphisms

Group homomorphisms tend to reduce the orders of elements: if ''f'': ''G'' → ''H'' is a homomorphism, and ''a'' is an element of ''G'' of finite order, then ord(''f''(''a'')) divides ord(''a''). If ''f'' is injective, then ord(''f''(''a'')) = ord(''a''). This can often be used to prove that there are no homomorphisms or no injective homomorphisms, between two explicitly given groups. (For example, there can be no nontrivial homomorphism ''h'': S3 → Z5, because every number except zero in Z5 has order 5, which does not divide the orders 1, 2, and 3 of elements in S3.) A further consequence is that conjugate elements have the same order.


Class equation

An important result about orders is the class equation; it relates the order of a finite group ''G'' to the order of its center Z(''G'') and the sizes of its non-trivial conjugacy classes: :, G, = , Z(G), + \sum_d_i\; where the ''di'' are the sizes of the non-trivial conjugacy classes; these are proper divisors of , ''G'', bigger than one, and they are also equal to the indices of the centralizers in ''G'' of the representatives of the non-trivial conjugacy classes. For example, the center of S3 is just the trivial group with the single element ''e'', and the equation reads , S3,  = 1+2+3.


See also

*
Torsion subgroup In the theory of abelian groups, the torsion subgroup ''AT'' of an abelian group ''A'' is the subgroup of ''A'' consisting of all elements that have finite order (the torsion elements of ''A''). An abelian group ''A'' is called a torsion group (or ...


Notes


References

* Dummit, David; Foote, Richard. Abstract Algebra, , pp. 20, 54–59, 90 * Artin, Michael. Algebra, , pp. 46–47 {{Authority control Group theory Algebraic properties of elements