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Operation Peter Pan (or Operación Pedro Pan) was a clandestine exodus of over 14,000 unaccompanied Cuban minors ages 6 to 18 to the United States over a two-year span from 1960 to 1962. They were sent after parents feared that Fidel Castro and the Communist party were planning to terminate parental rights and place minors in communist indoctrination centers, commonly referred to as the ''Patria Potestad''. The program consisted of two main components: the mass evacuation of Cuban children via airplane to the United States – Miami as a particularly common hub – and the programs set up to care for them once they arrived. Both were led by Father Bryan O. Walsh of the Catholic Welfare Bureau. The operation was the largest exodus of minor refugees in the Western Hemisphere at the time. It operated covertly out of fear that it would be viewed as an anti-Castro political enterprise.


Origins


Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution

Following the Cuban Revolution of 1959, but more importantly after the regime's October 1960 move to nationalize industries, the first wave of Cuban immigrants left for the United States. These upper and upper-middle classes were not tied to Batista's government (those left in the days following the overthrow of Batista) but had economic livelihoods incompatible with the regime's goals. Most, if not all, thought it to be a temporary departure, imagining a life where they would return to Cuba once the United States liberated the country from both Fidel Castro and the spreading Communist movement. Another wave of Cubans left upon the failure of the
Bay of Pigs Invasion The Bay of Pigs Invasion (, sometimes called ''Invasión de Playa Girón'' or ''Batalla de Playa Girón'' after the Playa Girón) was a failed military landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in 1961 by Cuban exiles, covertly fin ...
and the subsequent announcement by Castro that he was a Marxist-Leninist. This proclamation of a new order acted as a catalyst to leave to those who had adopted a "wait and see" attitude to developments. This third wave of Cuban immigrants was predominantly middle class. This wave of Cuban immigrants included middle merchants and management, landlords, mid-level professionals and a significant representation of skilled
unionized A trade union (labor union in American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", ch. I such as attaining better wages and benefits ( ...
workers. The constituents of these different classes looked on warily at the closures of private universities and schools in 1961 since these actions played into their fears that the government would take over the education of their children.


Parental fears

By 1960, the Cuban government began reforming education strategies. School children were taught military drills, how to bear arms, and anti-American songs. By 1961, the Cuban government would seize control of all private schools. As a result of the new social order, rumors began to swirl, originating from both inside the United States and other anti-Castro media. Various outlets, including the ''
Miami Herald The ''Miami Herald'' is an American daily newspaper owned by the McClatchy Company and headquartered in Doral, Florida, a city in western Miami-Dade County and the Miami metropolitan area, several miles west of Downtown Miami.''Time Magazine'', reported that Castro and his followers intended to terminate parental rights, assume custody of all Cuban children, prohibit religion and indoctrinate them into communism. The CIA-backed Radio Swan station asserted that the Cuban government was planning to remove children from their parents and send them to the
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
. These claims lacked evidence, but denials fell on deaf ears. These rumors, combined with the pre-existing worry instilled by the
Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War ( es, Guerra Civil Española)) or The Revolution ( es, La Revolución, link=no) among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War ( es, Cuarta Guerra Carlista, link=no) among Carlism, Carlists, and The Rebellion ( es, La Rebeli ...
(during which children were evacuated to other countries), made the ''patria potestad'' hoax impossible to contain. It had already reached the Catholic church and the general public, and opponents of the now openly communist regime who did not migrate during the first wave of the exodus began sending their children off to safety.


Organizing an exodus

Having been involved in a similar program that gained young Hungarians entrance to the US following Soviet repression of the 1956 uprising, Father Bryan O. Walsh of the Catholic Welfare Bureau, with the help of the U.S. government, developed the Cuban Children's Program in late 1960. Key players included
Tracy Voorhees Tracy Stebbins Voorhees (June 30, 1890 – September 25, 1974) served as Under Secretary of the United States Army from August 1949 to April 1950. He held numerous positions within the U.S. Government as a civilian. A practicing attorney, Voorhee ...
,
Eisenhower Administration Dwight D. Eisenhower's tenure as the 34th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1953, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower, a Republican from Kansas, took office following a landslide victory ...
, James Baker and Father Walsh. An October meeting brought the influx of Cuban refugees in Miami to the attention of the White House, with particular focus on what appeared to be a high number of unaccompanied minors wandering the city. Shortly after,
Tracy Voorhees Tracy Stebbins Voorhees (June 30, 1890 – September 25, 1974) served as Under Secretary of the United States Army from August 1949 to April 1950. He held numerous positions within the U.S. Government as a civilian. A practicing attorney, Voorhee ...
– a veteran U.S. government official who was serving as the president's Personal Representative for Cuban Refugees – reported that, though the issue was not large in number, it had still been highly publicized and, therefore, the administration needed to be seen taking action. Up until that time, the Catholic church had been the largest provider of aid. But, towards the end of 1960, President Eisenhower approved $1 million to help, with specific funds allocated to the creation of a Cuban emergency refugee center. To further their efforts, and ultimately further the smear campaign of Castro's Cuba, Vorhees recommended the administration further their involvement, this time taking specific interest in caring for the Cuban refugee children. Simultaneously, James Baker (headmaster of an American school in Havana) met with Walsh (who was already invested in helping already arrived child refugees settle into their new life) to detail his efforts helping parents send their children to Miami. Baker's original goal was to establish a boarding school in the United States for Cuban refugee children. However, both later agreed professional social welfare agencies would be better equipped for the job. The Catholic Welfare Bureau, the Children's Services Bureau and Jewish Family and Children's Services were the agencies that ultimately agreed to care for the refugee children. Thus, in November 1960, they appealed for federal funding, and, following the earlier recommendation from Vorhees, it was granted. Baker would arrange the children's transportation and facilitate visas, Walsh would arrange for accommodations in Miami. Underground organizations led by the involved parents helped spread information. Among those who helped alert parents about the program were Penny Powers, Pancho and Bertha Finlay, Drs. Sergio and Serafina Giquel, Sara del Toro de Odio and Albertina O'Farril. To maintain confidentiality, the program's leaders in the U.S. minimized communications with their contacts in Cuba.


Operations


Emigration

By January 1961, 6,500 Cuban children were enrolled in Miami and Miami-adjacent schools. By September 1962, that number had jumped to 19,000. And while Pedro Pans are often depicted as babies, infants or elementary-school-aged children, most of them were actually teenaged boys. A lack of limitations placed on how many were admitted coupled with federally-funded foster care made the Cuban Children's Program one unlike any other. It only continued to grow and get more complex. In January 1961, the U.S. embassy of Cuba closed, but Operation Peter Pan persisted. Instead of visas, children received waivers in the form of simple letters signed by Walsh effectively gaining them entrance into the country. Airlines were instructed to accept these letters as official documents and, as an added incentive, the U.S. government covered the cost of flights. From there, things continued to spiral. In September of that year, the State Department began allowing Cuban child refugees to apply for visa waivers on behalf of their parents. For many who could not otherwise afford it or did not already have other relatives in the United States, this became a fairly regular means of familial immigration.


Funding

By late 1960, Castro had expropriated several companies that made up the American Chamber of Commerce in Havana, including Esso Standard Oil Company and Freeport Sulfur Company. The leaders of these companies moved to Miami while they analyzed the actions of Cuba's new government. Under the impression that Castro's rule would be brief, they agreed to aid the Cuban children by providing funding for Operation Peter Pan. Through collaborations with Baker, these business leaders agreed to help secure donations from multiple US businesses and send them to Cuba. Because Castro was supervising all major monetary transactions, the businessmen were very careful in how the funds were transferred. Some donations were sent to the Catholic Welfare Bureau and others were written out as checks to citizens living in Miami. These individuals then wrote checks out to the W. Henry Smith Travel Agency in Havana, which helped fund the children's flights to the United States. It was necessary to send the funds in American currency because Castro had ruled that plane tickets could not be purchased with
Cuban peso The Cuban peso (in Spanish , ISO 4217 code: CUP) also known as , is the official currency of Cuba. The Cuban peso historically circulated at par with the Spanish-American silver dollar from the 16th to 19th centuries, and then at par with the U ...
s.


Housing

As the need for shelters grew as the children arrived in increasing numbers, several prominent locations were converted to house them, including Camp Matecumbe, the Opa-locka Airport Marine barracks. Special homes, authorized by state officials and operated by Cuban refugees, were formed in several hundred cities across the nation including
Albuquerque, New Mexico Albuquerque ( ; ), ; kee, Arawageeki; tow, Vakêêke; zun, Alo:ke:k'ya; apj, Gołgéeki'yé. abbreviated ABQ, is the most populous city in the U.S. state of New Mexico. Its nicknames, The Duke City and Burque, both reference its founding i ...
;
Lincoln, Nebraska Lincoln is the capital city of the U.S. state of Nebraska and the county seat of Lancaster County. The city covers with a population of 292,657 in 2021. It is the second-most populous city in Nebraska and the 73rd-largest in the United ...
;
Wilmington, Delaware Wilmington (Unami language, Lenape: ''Paxahakink /'' ''Pakehakink)'' is the largest city in the U.S. state of Delaware. The city was built on the site of Fort Christina, the first Swedish colonization of the Americas, Swedish settlement in North ...
;
Fort Wayne, Indiana Fort Wayne is a city in and the county seat of Allen County, Indiana, United States. Located in northeastern Indiana, the city is west of the Ohio border and south of the Michigan border. The city's population was 263,886 as of the 2020 Censu ...
;
Jacksonville Jacksonville is a city located on the Atlantic coast of northeast Florida, the most populous city proper in the state and is the List of United States cities by area, largest city by area in the contiguous United States as of 2020. It is the co ...
and
Orlando, Florida Orlando () is a city in the U.S. state of Florida and is the county seat of Orange County. In Central Florida, it is the center of the Orlando metropolitan area, which had a population of 2,509,831, according to U.S. Census Bureau figures re ...
. Many children were placed in foster care, some were placed in positive living environments and others endured emotional and physical neglect. Laws prevented any relocated children from being housed in reform schools or centers for juvenile delinquents. Further, the minors were not made available for adoption.


End

The Cuban Children's Program remained a secret until February 1962, when ''
The Plain Dealer ''The Plain Dealer'' is the major newspaper of Cleveland, Ohio, United States. In fall 2019, it ranked 23rd in U.S. newspaper circulation, a significant drop since March 2013, when its circulation ranked 17th daily and 15th on Sunday. As of M ...
'' introduced its readers to the masses of unaccompanied Cuban minors who made their way across the country for three years unnoticed. On March 9 of the same year, the ''
Miami Herald The ''Miami Herald'' is an American daily newspaper owned by the McClatchy Company and headquartered in Doral, Florida, a city in western Miami-Dade County and the Miami metropolitan area, several miles west of Downtown Miami.Gene Miller also ran a story about the event, in which he coined the term Operation Pedro Pan. The American portion of Operation Peter Pan ended when all air traffic between the United States and Cuba ceased in the aftermath of the
Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis (of 1962) ( es, Crisis de Octubre) in Cuba, the Caribbean Crisis () in Russia, or the Missile Scare, was a 35-day (16 October – 20 November 1962) confrontation between the United S ...
of October 1962. Cuban immigrants were instead re-routed to Spain and other countries following the Cuban Missile Crisis, and Cuban immigrants would have to travel via Spain or Mexico to reach the United States until 1965. In December of 1965, the United States established a program of Freedom Flights (''los vuelos de la libertad'') to unite Cuban parents with their children. The Catholic Welfare Bureau reported that, once the Freedom Flights began, nearly 90% of the minors still in its care were reunited with their parents. Remnants of the program would continue up until 1981. An estimate of 25,000 children were affected by the program.


Legacy


Film

Nearing the end of this mass-exodus of children to the United States,
Attorney General In most common law jurisdictions, the attorney general or attorney-general (sometimes abbreviated AG or Atty.-Gen) is the main legal advisor to the government. The plural is attorneys general. In some jurisdictions, attorneys general also have exec ...
Robert F. Kennedy approved funding for a
propaganda film A propaganda film is a film that involves some form of propaganda. Propaganda films spread and promote certain ideas that are usually religious, political, or cultural in nature. A propaganda film is made with the intent that the viewer will ad ...
designed to assist migrant children’s understanding of why their parents had made this choice on their behalf. This film elaborates on the many things for children to do within their current situation, including but not limited to learning, playing, and attending religious ceremonies. However, this film is careful not mention the current events in Cuba. The film was directed by
Cliff Solway Clifford "Cliff" Solway (November 6, 1926 – August 3, 2009) was a Canadian producer and director for public affairs programming for 57 years on CBC Television. Biography Solway was born in Toronto, Ontario, and attended college at Ryerson ...
, a Canadian director for CBC. Titled ''The Lost Apple'', the (approximately) thirty-minute short film follows the life of Roberto and two other young children inside the
Florida City Florida City is a city in Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States. It is the southernmost municipality in the South Florida metropolitan area. Florida City is primarily a Miami suburb and a major agricultural area. As of the 2020 census, it h ...
Camp that was one of the main offloading sites for children. The film was produced by the
United States Information Agency The United States Information Agency (USIA), which operated from 1953 to 1999, was a United States agency devoted to " public diplomacy". In 1999, prior to the reorganization of intelligence agencies by President George W. Bush, President Bil ...
. Narrated by Carlos Montalbán, the short film explains to young Cuban children how and why they are in the United States. The narrator explains that camps such as the Florida City Camp is only a temporary place for the children to stay, as they are meant to find other opportunities through scholarships or be housed with foster parents.


Museums

The American Museum of The Cuban Diaspora (shortened to The Cuban) hosted an installation recounting Operation Peter Pan for its 60th anniversary in 2021. The museum is located in Miami, Florida and was founded in 2004. The Cuban, working directly with Operation Pedro Pan Group, Inc. (OPPG), expanded on OPPG's 2015 exhibit by adding documents, objects, and images loaned by the historical committee of the organization.


Pedro Pan children

Many Pedro Pans had trouble assimilating into American society. Many were sent to the United States on the instruction of their parents and felt alienated both from their homeland and their new home. Some found the United States an unwelcoming place gripped by racial segregation. Those who felt uncomfortable in American society often participated in the growing
Civil rights movement The civil rights movement was a nonviolent social and political movement and campaign from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish legalized institutional racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement throughout the Unite ...
and
anti-war movement An anti-war movement (also ''antiwar'') is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. The term anti-war can also refer to p ...
, adopted the traits of the growing youth counterculture, or rejected the ideology of their parents. Many would desire to return to Cuba. In the same way, some others found professional success, and went on to become notable people. One of such examples is Maximo Alvarez, founder of the fuel distribution chain Sunshine Gasoline Distribution inc., who emigrated to the United States as a Pedro Pan child in 1961, at the age of 13. Some Pedro Pan children would involve themselves in the
Abdala Abdala or Abdalá is both a given name and a surname. It is a Spanish variation of the common Arabic name Abdullah. Notable people with the name include: Surname * Alberto Abdala (1920–1986) Uruguayan politician, painter and Vice President of Uru ...
organization, an organization of Cuban-American students dedicated to protesting the Cuban government and promoting Cuban-American pride. Other Pedro Pan children would adopt
leftist Left-wing politics describes the range of political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy. Left-wing politics typically involve a concern for those in so ...
sympathies after becoming involved in social movements in the United States. In 1977, some Pedro Pan emigrants joined the Antonio Maceo Brigade that sympathized with the Cuban government and supported Cuban exiles' travel to Cuba. The brigade would make the first trip of Cuban exiles to Cuba.


Pedro Pan Children by the Numbers

A study from
Yale University Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the w ...
investigated if the Pedro Pan population shows persistent differences in their physical and mental health, and attachment secondary to childhood separation from their family. These participants were compared against a control sample of Cuban immigrants who had traveled with their families to the US at the same time as the Pedro Pan children. 102 adults who were involved in the Operation Pedro Pan exodus participated in this study. Within the survey, it was reported that no significant differences were found between the Pedro Pan group and the control group. However, the result of the study can be interpreted in many different ways. Since both groups were part of a larger exile, they could have similar mindsets about their familial ties and feelings towards the earlier time period.


Conflicting narratives

The United States government may have had other than humanitarian motives for allowing Cuban migration. The emigration of Cuba's middle class undermined its economic situation through a "brain drain". Stories of abandoned Pedro Pans deepened Anti-Castro sentiment within the Americas, connecting the rise of Communism and the separation of families. In 1978, El Grupo Areito and Casa de las Américas collaborated to publis
"Contra viento y marea
, a book of anonymous testimonies detailing alienation from both the Cuban community from which they fled and the American community to which they came. A direct contrast to the previous happy-go-lucky stories of Operation Pedro Pan, these accounts told stories of loneliness, poor conditions and mental, physical and sexual abuse.


Controversy over CIA involvement

An ongoing political controversy developed around charges that Operation Peter Pan was not an effort of volunteers and charitable organization, but had been secretly funded by the U.S. government as a covert operation of the
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...
. Author Maria de los Angeles Torres filed a
Freedom of Information Act Freedom of Information Act may refer to the following legislations in different jurisdictions which mandate the national government to disclose certain data to the general public upon request: * Freedom of Information Act 1982, the Australian act * ...
suit to obtain government files on the program. In 1999, a ruling by the U.S. District Court for Northern Illinois determined that this "evacuation of Cuban children turned out not to be a CIA operation at all". The ruling was based in part on the court's review of 733 pages of documentation provided by the CIA for use in an earlier lawsuit.


Participants in Operation Peter Pan

Unaccompanied Cuban minors, known at the time as "Pedro Pans" or "Peter Pans", who participated in the operation include: * Eduardo Aguirre,
United States Ambassador to Spain The incumbent ambassador is Julissa Reynoso Pantaleón, she was sworn in by Vice President Kamala Harris on January 7, 2022 and presented her credentials on February 2, 2022. This is a list of United States ambassadors to Spain from 1779 to th ...
(2005–2009) * Frank Angones, first Cuban-born head of the Florida Bar * Fred Beato, Cuban-American musician and business owner. *
Carlos Mayans Carlos Mayans (born July 8, 1948) became mayor of the city of Wichita, Kansas in April 2003. He was born in Havana, Cuba in 1948 and emigrated to the United States through the Operation Peter Pan shortly after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. ...
, former mayor of Wichita, Kansas * Willy Chirino, Cuban-American musician and salsa singer *
Carlos Eire Carlos M. N. Eire is the T. Lawrason Riggs Professor of History and Religious Studies at Yale University. He is a historian of late medieval and early modern Europe. Education Eire received his Bachelor of Arts in History and Theology in 19 ...
, author, professor of the history of religion at
Yale University Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the w ...
* Felipe de Jesus Estevez, former bishop Roman Catholic diocese of St. Augustine * Mario Garcia, newspaper designer and media consultant *
Hugo Llorens Hugo Llorens (born September 7, 1954) is a retired American diplomat. He is a former U.S. Special Chargé d'Affaires of the U.S. Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, (2016–17) and United States Ambassador to Honduras (2008–2011). In his 36-year c ...
, United States Ambassador to Honduras (2008–2011) and United States Ambassador to Afghanistan (2016–17) *
Ana Mendieta Ana Mendieta (November 18, 1948 – September 8, 1985) was a Cuban-American performance artist, sculptor, painter and video artist who is best known for her "earth-body" artwork. Born in Havana, Mendieta left for the United States in 1961. Ear ...
, artist * Guillermo "Bill" Vidal, former
mayor In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities of a mayor as well ...
of
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(2011) and author of '' Boxing for Cuba'' * Miguel Bezos,
Jeff Bezos Jeffrey Preston Bezos ( ;; and Robinson (2010), p. 7. ''né'' Jorgensen; born January 12, 1964) is an American entrepreneur, media proprietor, investor, and commercial astronaut. He is the founder, executive chairman, and former presi ...
' (
Amazon Amazon most often refers to: * Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek mythology * Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin * Amazon River, in South America * Amazon (company), an American multinational technolog ...
's founder) stepfather, who raised him since he was 4 years old * U.S. Senator
Mel Martinez Mel, Mels or MEL may refer to: Biology * Mouse erythroleukemia cell line (MEL) * National Herbarium of Victoria, a herbarium with the Index Herbariorum code MEL People * Mel (given name), the abbreviated version of several given names (includin ...
, former Florida Senator and first Latino chairman of the Republican party * Lissette Alvarez, singer-songwriter * Eduardo J. Padrón, former President of
Miami Dade College Miami Dade College (Miami Dade, MDC or Dade) is a public college in Miami, Florida. Founded in 1959, it has a total of eight campuses and twenty-one outreach centers throughout Miami-Dade County. It is the largest college in the Florida College S ...
(1995–2019) * Demetrio Perez Jr., educator, politician, radio commentator, entrepreneur and publisher of LIBRE, a bilingual weekly newspaper, and founded the Lincoln-Marti educational group.


In culture

Operation Peter Pan is recounted in: *'' Waiting for Snow in Havana'', in which
Carlos Eire Carlos M. N. Eire is the T. Lawrason Riggs Professor of History and Religious Studies at Yale University. He is a historian of late medieval and early modern Europe. Education Eire received his Bachelor of Arts in History and Theology in 19 ...
describes his experiences during Operation Peter Pan *''Learning to Die in Miami'', another memoir by Carlos Eire about his emigration to the United States from Havana *''Operation Pedro Pan: The Untold Exodus of 14,048 Cuban Children'', based on the research and interviews of Yvonne M. Conde *''The Red Umbrella,'' a young-adult historical fiction novel by Christina Diaz Gonzalez, based on her mother's exile from Cuba as a teenager * ''Cuba on My Mind: Journeys to a Severed Nation'', an exploration of Havana, Miami, and the "one-and-half-generation" by Román de la Campa *'' Boxing For Cuba'', a 2007 memoir by
Bill Vidal Guillermo "Bill" Vidal (born July 19, 1951) is a Cuban American author and career civil servant who served as the 44th mayor of Denver, Colorado. Vidal served as deputy mayor under John Hickenlooper until Hickenlooper resigned his position as m ...
, civil servant and mayor of Denver * "Operation Peter Pan", a song written by
Tori Amos Tori Amos (born Myra Ellen Amos; August 22, 1963) is an American singer-songwriter and pianist. She is a classically trained musician with a mezzo-soprano vocal range. Having already begun composing instrumental pieces on piano, Amos won a full ...
originally on the B-side to the limited edition release of her single " A Sorta Fairytale" *The operation is the main influence behind the
Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply as the Manics, are a Welsh Rock music, rock band formed in Blackwood, Caerphilly, Blackwood in 1986. The band consists of cousins James Dean Bradfield (lead vocals, lead guitar) and Sean Moore (musician ...
song "Baby Elián", the penultimate track from the band's sixth studio album, '' Know Your Enemy''. *On the 2017 Netflix Original Series ''One Day at a Time'', Lydia Riera, played by Rita Moreno, the grandmother on the show, came to the US via Pedro Pan.


See also

* Cuban migration to Miami *
Cuban American Cuban Americans ( es, cubanoestadounidenses or ''cubanoamericanos'') are Americans who trace their cultural heritage to Cuba regardless of phenotype or ethnic origin. The word may refer to someone born in the United States of Cuban descent or ...
*
Cuban exile A Cuban exile is a person who emigrated from Cuba in the Cuban exodus. Exiles have various differing experiences as emigrants depending on when they migrated during the exodus. Demographics Social class Cuban exiles would come from various ec ...
*
Mariel boatlift The Mariel boatlift () was a mass emigration of Cubans who traveled from Cuba's Mariel Harbor to the United States between 15 April and 31 October 1980. The term "" (plural "Marielitos") is used to refer to these refugees in both Spanish and E ...
*
Opposition to Fidel Castro The Cuban dissident movement is a political movement in Cuba whose aim is to replace the current government with a liberal democracy. According to Human Rights Watch, the Cuban government represses nearly all forms of political dissent. Backgr ...
* Operation Baby Lift (South Vietnam, 1975) * Polita Grau


References


External links


Operation Pedro Pan Group
official site
"Children of Cuba Remember their Flight to America"
NPR
"Cuban Refugee Children"
by Monsignor Bryan O. Walsh
Pedro Pan Network
hosted by the ''Miami Herald''
"Cuban Kids in Exile: Pawns of Cold War Politics"
''Chicago Sun-Times'', 24 August 2003, review of Maria de los Angeles Torres' ''The Lost Apple'' {{Immigration to the United States Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution 1960s in Cuba 1960s in the United States Cuba–United States relations History of immigration to the United States Cuban emigrants to the United States History of Miami