Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) consist of materials, usually

industrial waste Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and mining operations. Types of industrial waste include dirt an ...

s or by-products enriched with radioactive elements found in the environment, such as

uranium Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly ...

, thorium and

potassium Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin ''kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmosp ...

and any of their decay products, such as

radium Radium is a chemical element with the symbol Ra and atomic number 88. It is the sixth element in group 2 of the periodic table, also known as the alkaline earth metals. Pure radium is silvery-white, but it readily reacts with nitrogen (rathe ...

and

radon Radon is a chemical element with the symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a radioactive, colourless, odourless, tasteless noble gas. It occurs naturally in minute quantities as an intermediate step in the normal radioactive decay chains through ...

Produced water Produced water is a term used in the oil industry or geothermal industry to describe water that is produced as a byproduct during the extraction of oil and natural gas, or used as a medium for heat extraction. Produced water is the kind of brackis ...

discharges and spills are a good example of entering NORMs into the surrounding environment. Natural radioactive elements are present in very low concentrations in Earth's crust, and are brought to the surface through human activities such as

oil and gas exploration Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas exploration) is the search by petroleum geologists and geophysicists for deposits of hydrocarbons, particularly petroleum and natural gas, in the Earth using petroleum geology. Exploration methods ...

mining Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit. The exploitation of these deposits for raw material is based on the economic via ...

, and through natural processes like leakage of

gas to the atmosphere or through dissolution in ground water. Another example of TENORM is

coal ash Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is formed when dead ...

produced from coal burning in

power plants A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power stations are generally connected to an electrical grid. Many p ...

. If radioactivity is much higher than background level, handling TENORM may cause problems in many industries and transportation.

NORM in oil and gas exploration

Oil and gas TENORM and/or NORM is created in the production process, when produced fluids from reservoirs carry sulfates up to the surface of the Earth's crust. Some states, such as

North Dakota North Dakota () is a U.S. state in the Upper Midwest, named after the indigenous Dakota Sioux. North Dakota is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba to the north and by the U.S. states of Minnesota to the east, South ...

, uses the term "diffuse NORM". Barium, calcium and strontium sulfates are larger compounds, and the smaller atoms, such as

radium-226 Radium (88Ra) has no stable or nearly stable isotopes, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The longest lived, and most common, isotope of radium is 226Ra with a half-life of . 226Ra occurs in the decay chain of 238U (often referr ...

and

radium-228 Radium (88Ra) has no stable or nearly stable isotopes, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The longest lived, and most common, isotope of radium is 226Ra with a half-life of . 226Ra occurs in the decay chain of 238U (often referred ...

, can fit into the empty spaces of the compound and be carried through the produced fluids. As the fluids approach the surface, changes in the temperature and pressure cause the barium, calcium, strontium and radium sulfates to precipitate out of solution and form scale on the inside, or on occasion, the outside of the tubulars and/or casing. The use of tubulars in the production process that are NORM contaminated does not cause a health hazard if the scale is inside the tubulars and the tubulars remain downhole. Enhanced concentrations of the radium 226 and 228 and the daughter products such as

lead-210 Lead (82Pb) has four stable isotopes: 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb. Lead-204 is entirely a primordial nuclide and is not a radiogenic nuclide. The three isotopes lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 represent the ends of three decay chains: the urani ...

may also occur in sludge that accumulates in oilfield pits, tanks and lagoons. Radon gas in the natural gas streams concentrate as NORM in gas processing activities. Radon decays to lead-210, then to

bismuth-210 Bismuth (83Bi) has 41 known isotopes, ranging from 184Bi to 224Bi. Bismuth has no stable isotopes, but does have one very long-lived isotope; thus, the standard atomic weight can be given as . Although bismuth-209 is now known to be unstable, it h ...

polonium-210 Polonium-210 (210Po, Po-210, historically radium F) is an isotope of polonium. It undergoes alpha decay to stable 206Pb with a half-life of 138.376 days (about months), the longest half-life of all naturally occurring polonium isotopes. First i ...

and stabilizes with

lead-206 Lead (82Pb) has four stable isotopes: 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb. Lead-204 is entirely a primordial nuclide and is not a radiogenic nuclide. The three isotopes lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 represent the ends of three decay chains: the uranium ...

. Radon decay elements occur as a shiny film on the inner surface of inlet lines, treating units, pumps and valves associated with propylene, ethane and propane processing systems. NORM characteristics vary depending on the nature of the waste. NORM may be created in a crystalline form, which is brittle and thin, and can cause flaking to occur in tubulars. NORM formed in carbonate matrix can have a density of 3.5 grams/cubic centimeters and must be noted when packing for transportation. NORM scales may be white or a brown solid, or thick sludge to solid, dry flaky substances. NORM may also be found in oil and gas production produced waters. Cutting and reaming oilfield pipe, removing solids from tanks and pits, and refurbishing gas processing equipment may expose employees to particles containing increased levels of alpha emitting radionuclides that could pose health risks if inhaled or ingested. NORM is found in many industries including * The coal industry (mining and combustion) * Metal mining and smelting * Mineral sands (rare earth minerals, titanium and zirconium). * Fertilizer (phosphate) industry * Building industry

Hazards

The hazards associated with NORM are inhalation and ingestion routes of entry as well as external exposure where there has been a significant accumulation of scales.

Respirator A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous atmospheres including fumes, vapours, gases and particulate matter such as dusts and airborne pathogens such as viruses. There are two main categories of resp ...

s may be necessary in dry processes, where NORM scales and dust become air borne and have a significant chance to enter the body. The hazardous elements found in NORM are radium 226, 228 and radon 222 and also daughter products from these radionuclides. The elements are referred to as "

bone seekers A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and ...

" which when inside the body migrate to the bone tissue and concentrate. This exposure can cause bone cancers and other bone abnormalities. The concentration of radium and other daughter products build over time, with several years of excessive exposures. Therefore, from a liability standpoint an employee that has not had respiratory protection over several years could develop bone or other cancers from NORM exposure and decide to seek compensation such as medical expenses and lost wages from the oil company which generated the TENORM and the employer. Radium radionuclides emit alpha and beta particles as well as gamma rays. The radiation emitted from a radium 226 atom is 96% alpha particles and 4% gamma rays. The

alpha particle Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produce ...

is not the most dangerous particle associated with NORM, as an external hazard. Alpha particles are identical with helium-4 nuclei. Alpha particles travel short distances in air, of only 2–3 cm, and cannot penetrate through a dead layer of skin on the human body. However, some radium alpha particle emitters are "bone seekers" due to radium possessing a high affinity for chloride ions. In the case that radium atoms are not expelled from the body, they concentrate in areas where chloride ions are prevalent, such as bone tissue. The

half-life Half-life (symbol ) is the time required for a quantity (of substance) to reduce to half of its initial value. The term is commonly used in nuclear physics to describe how quickly unstable atoms undergo radioactive decay or how long stable ato ...

for radium 226 is approximately 1,620 years, and will remain in the body for the lifetime of the human — a significant length of time to cause damage.

Beta particle A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β� ...

s are high energy electrons or positrons. They are in the middle of the scale in terms of ionizing potential and penetrating power, being stopped by a few millimeters of plastic. This radiation is a small portion of the total emitted during radium 226 decay. Radium 228 emits beta particles, and is also a concern for human health through inhalation and ingestion. Beta particles are

electron The electron ( or ) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no kno ...

s or

positron The positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. It has an electric charge of +1 '' e'', a spin of 1/2 (the same as the electron), and the same mass as an electron. When a positron collides ...

s and can travel farther than alpha particles in air. The

gamma ray A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol γ or \gamma), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves, typically s ...

s emitted from radium 226, accounting for 4% of the radiation, are harmful to humans with sufficient exposure. Gamma rays are highly penetrating and some can pass through metals, so

Geiger counter A Geiger counter (also known as a Geiger–Müller counter) is an electronic instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. It is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental p ...

s or a scintillation probe are used to measure gamma ray exposures when monitoring for NORM. Alpha and beta particles are harmful once inside the body. Breathing NORM contaminates from dusts should be prevented by wearing respirators with particulate filters. In the case of properly trained occupational NORM workers, air monitoring and analysis may be necessary. These measurements, ALI and DAC, are calculated values based on the dose an average employee working 2,000 hours a year may be exposed to. The current legal limit exposure in the United States is 1 ALI, or 5 rems. A rem, or

roentgen equivalent man The roentgen equivalent man (rem) is a CGS unit of equivalent dose, effective dose, and committed dose, which are dose measures used to estimate potential health effects of low levels of ionizing radiation on the human body. Quantities measure ...

, is a measurement of absorption of radiation on parts of the body over an extended period of time. A DAC is a concentration of alpha and beta particles that an average working employee is exposed to for 2,000 hours of light work. If an employee is exposed to over 10% of an ALI, 500 mREM, then the employee's dose must be documented under instructions with federal and state regulations.

Regulation

United States

NORM is not federally regulated in the United States. The

Nuclear Regulatory Commission The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is an independent agency of the United States government tasked with protecting public health and safety related to nuclear energy. Established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, the NRC began oper ...

(NRC) has jurisdiction over a relatively narrow spectrum of radiation, and the

Environmental Protection Agency A biophysical environment is a biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population, and consequently includes the factors that have an influence in their survival, development, and evolution. A biophysical environment can vary in scale ...

(EPA) has jurisdiction over NORM. Since no federal entity has implemented NORM regulations, NORM is variably regulated by the states.

United Kingdom

In the UK regulation is via the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010. This defines two types of NORM activity: *Type 1 NORM industrial activity means: (a) the production and use of thorium, or thorium compounds, and the production of products where thorium is deliberately added; or (b) the production and use of uranium or uranium compounds, and the production of products where uranium is deliberately added * Type 2 NORM industrial activity means: (a) the extraction, production and use of rare earth elements and rare earth element alloys; (b) the mining and processing of ores other than uranium ore; (c) the production of oil and gas; (d) the removal and management of radioactive scales and precipitates from equipment associated with industrial activities; (e) any industrial activity utilising phosphate ore; (f) the manufacture of titanium dioxide pigments; (g) the extraction and refining of zircon and manufacture of zirconium compounds; (h) the production of tin, copper, aluminium, zinc, lead and iron and steel; (i) any activity related to coal mine de-watering plants; (j) china clay extraction; (k) water treatment associated with provision of drinking water; or (l) The remediation of contamination from any type 1 NORM industrial activity or any of the activities listed above. An activity which involves the processing of radionuclides of natural terrestrial or cosmic origin for their radioactive, fissile or fertile properties is not a type 1 NORM industrial activity or a type 2 NORM industrial activity.Guidance to Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations (EPR) 2010

References

External links

North Dakota Department of Health

NORM Technology Connection
Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission
Radiation Quick Reference Guide

Domestic Nuclear Detection Office The Domestic Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO) is a jointly staffed office established on April 15, 2005 by the United States to improve the nation’s capability to detect and report unauthorized attempts to import, possess, store, develop, or tran ...

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
from the

World Nuclear Association World Nuclear Association is the international organization that promotes nuclear power and supports the companies that comprise the global nuclear industry. Its members come from all parts of the nuclear fuel cycle, including uranium mining, ur ...

UK guidance on Radioactive Substances Regulation For the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010:Defra
Radioactive waste {{more categories, date=July 2020