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The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the
phylum In biology, a phylum (; plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. Traditionally, in botany the term division has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Nomenclature ...
Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-
parasitic Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...
nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Less formally, they are categorized as
Helminths Parasitic worms, also known as helminths, are large macroparasites; adults can generally be seen with the naked eye. Many are intestinal worms that are soil-transmitted and infect the gastrointestinal tract. Other parasitic worms such as ...
, but are taxonomically classified along with
arthropods Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, ...
, tardigrades and other
moulting In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and go through an ontogenetic stage ...
s in the
clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English ter ...
Ecdysozoa Ecdysozoa () is a group of protostome animals, including Arthropoda ( insects, chelicerata, crustaceans, and myriapods), Nematoda, and several smaller phyla. They were first defined by Aguinaldo ''et al.'' in 1997, based mainly on phylogenetic ...
, and unlike
flatworm The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, ''platy'', meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), ''helminth-'', meaning "worm") are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmen ...
s, have tubular
digestive system The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller compone ...
s with openings at both ends. Like tardigrades, they have a reduced number of
Hox gene Hox genes, a subset of homeobox genes, are a group of related genes that specify regions of the body plan of an embryo along the head-tail axis of animals. Hox proteins encode and specify the characteristics of 'position', ensuring that the cor ...
s, but their sister phylum Nematomorpha has kept the ancestral protostome Hox genotype, which shows that the reduction has occurred within the nematode phylum. Nematode
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriat ...
can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematode species described to date vary by author and may change rapidly over time. A 2013 survey of animal biodiversity published in the mega journal ''
Zootaxa ''Zootaxa'' is a peer-reviewed scientific mega journal for animal taxonomists. It is published by Magnolia Press (Auckland, New Zealand). The journal was established by Zhi-Qiang Zhang in 2001 and new issues are published multiple times a wee ...
'' puts this figure at over 25,000. Estimates of the total number of
extant Extant is the opposite of the word extinct. It may refer to: * Extant hereditary titles * Extant literature, surviving literature, such as ''Beowulf'', the oldest extant manuscript written in English * Extant taxon, a taxon which is not extinct, ...
species are subject to even greater variation. A widely referenced article published in 1993 estimated there may be over 1 million species of nematode. A subsequent publication challenged this claim, estimating the figure to be at least 40,000 species. Although the highest estimates (up to 100 million species) have since been deprecated, estimates supported by rarefaction curves, together with the use of DNA barcoding and the increasing acknowledgment of widespread
cryptic species In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each ot ...
among nematodes, have placed the figure closer to 1 million species. Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every
ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syst ...
: from marine (salt) to fresh water, soils, from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are ubiquitous in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriat ...
counts, and are found in locations as diverse as mountains, deserts, and
oceanic trench Oceanic trenches are prominent long, narrow topographic depressions of the ocean floor. They are typically wide and below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor, but can be thousands of kilometers in length. There are about of oceanic tren ...
es. They are found in every part of the earth's
lithosphere A lithosphere () is the rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of up to thousands of years ...
, even at great depths, below the surface of the Earth in gold mines in South Africa. They represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor. * In total, 4.4 × 1020 nematodes inhabit the Earth's topsoil, or approximately 60 billion for each human, with the highest densities observed in tundra and boreal forests. Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of lifecycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point to an important role in many ecosystems. They have been shown to play crucial roles in polar ecosystems. The roughly 2,271 
genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
are placed in 256  families. The many parasitic forms include
pathogen In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a g ...
s in most plants and animals. A third of the genera occur as
parasite Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson h ...
s of
vertebrate Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () ( chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with ...
s; about 35 nematode species occur in humans. Nathan Cobb, a
nematologist Nematology is the scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms. Although nematological investigation dates back to the days of Aristotle or even earlier, nematology as an independent discipline has its recognizabl ...
, described the ubiquity of nematodes on Earth thus:
In short, if all the matter in the universe except the nematodes were swept away, our world would still be dimly recognizable, and if, as disembodied spirits, we could then investigate it, we should find its mountains, hills, vales, rivers, lakes, and oceans represented by a film of nematodes. The location of towns would be decipherable since, for every massing of human beings, there would be a corresponding massing of certain nematodes. Trees would still stand in ghostly rows representing our streets and highways. The location of the various plants and animals would still be decipherable, and, had we sufficient knowledge, in many cases even their species could be determined by an examination of their erstwhile nematode parasites.


Etymology

The word ''nematode'' comes from the Modern Latin compound of ''nemat-'' "thread" (from Greek ''nema'', genitive ''nematos'' "thread," from stem of ''nein'' "to spin"; see ''needle'') + ''-odes'' "like, of the nature of" (see ''-oid'').


Taxonomy and systematics


History

In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera (e.g., ''
Ascaris ''Ascaris'' is a genus of parasitic nematode worms known as the "small intestinal roundworms", which is a type of parasitic worm. One species, '' Ascaris lumbricoides'', affects humans and causes the disease ascariasis. Another species, ''Ascar ...
''), then included in the Vermes. The name of the group Nematoda, informally called "nematodes", came from
Nematoidea Nematoida is a clade, grouping of animals, including the nematode, roundworms and Nematomorpha, horsehair worms. References

Nematoida, Protostome unranked clades {{protostome-stub ...
, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi (1808), from
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic pe ...
νῆμα (''nêma, nêmatos'', 'thread') and -eiδἠς (''-eidēs'', 'species'). It was treated as
family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Nematodes by Burmeister (1837). At its origin, the "Nematoidea" erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold (1843). Along with Acanthocephala,
Trematoda Trematoda is a class of flatworms known as flukes. They are obligate internal parasites with a complex life cycle requiring at least two hosts. The intermediate host, in which asexual reproduction occurs, is usually a snail. The definitive h ...
, and
Cestoidea Cestoda is a class of parasitic worms in the flatworm phylum (Platyhelminthes). Most of the species—and the best-known—are those in the subclass Eucestoda; they are ribbon-like worms as adults, known as tapeworms. Their bodies consist of ma ...
, it formed the obsolete group Entozoa, created by Rudolphi (1808). They were also classed along with Acanthocephala in the obsolete
phylum In biology, a phylum (; plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. Traditionally, in botany the term division has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Nomenclature ...
Nemathelminthes by Gegenbaur (1859). In 1861, K. M. Diesing treated the group as order Nematoda. In 1877, the
taxon In biology, a taxon ( back-formation from '' taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular n ...
Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae (horsehair worms), was promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester. The first clear distinction between the nemas and gordiids was realized by Vejdovsky when he named a group to contain the horsehair worms the order Nematomorpha. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum. He argued they should be called "nema" in English rather than "nematodes" and defined the taxon Nemates (later emended as Nemata, Latin plural of ''nema''), listing Nematoidea ''sensu restricto'' as a synonym. However, in 1910, Grobben proposed the phylum Aschelminthes and the nematodes were included in as class Nematoda along with class Rotifera, class Gastrotricha, class Kinorhyncha, class Priapulida, and class Nematomorpha (The phylum was later revived and modified by Libbie Henrietta Hyman in 1951 as Pseudoceolomata, but remained similar). In 1932, Potts elevated the class Nematoda to the level of phylum, leaving the name the same. Despite Potts' classification being equivalent to Cobbs', both names have been used (and are still used today) and Nematode became a popular term in zoological science. Since Cobb was the first to include nematodes in a particular phylum separated from Nematomorpha, some researchers consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda, because of the zoological rule that gives priority to the first used term in case of synonyms.


Phylogeny

The
phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups ...
relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the
protostomia Protostomia () is the clade of animals once thought to be characterized by the formation of the organism's mouth before its anus during embryonic development. This nature has since been discovered to be extremely variable among Protostomia's memb ...
n
Metazoa Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and go through an ontogenetic stage in ...
are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own, but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group
Ecdysozoa Ecdysozoa () is a group of protostome animals, including Arthropoda ( insects, chelicerata, crustaceans, and myriapods), Nematoda, and several smaller phyla. They were first defined by Aguinaldo ''et al.'' in 1997, based mainly on phylogenetic ...
together with
moulting In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
animals, such as
arthropod Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chiti ...
s. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always been considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a
sister taxon In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and ...
to the parasitic Nematomorpha; together, they make up the
Nematoida Nematoida is a grouping of animals, including the roundworms The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-parasitic nematodes also known ...
. Along with the Scalidophora (formerly Cephalorhyncha), the Nematoida form the clade
Cycloneuralia Cycloneuralia is a clade of ecdysozoan animals including the Scalidophora (Kinorhynchans, Loriciferans, Priapulids) and the Nematoida (nematodes, Nematomorphs). It may be paraphyletic, or may be a sister group to Panarthropoda. Or perhaps Pa ...
, but much disagreement occurs both between and among the available morphological and molecular data. The Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum.


Nematode systematics

Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious. An early and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood—later revised by Chitwood—who divided the phylum into two classes— Aphasmidia and Phasmidia. These were later renamed
Adenophorea Adenophorea or Aphasmidia was a class of nematodes (roundworms). It has been by and large abandoned by modern taxonomy, because there is strong evidence for it being a motley paraphyletic group of unrelated lineages of roundworms.ToL (2002) Chara ...
(gland bearers) and Secernentea (secretors), respectively. The Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division. This scheme was adhered to in many later classifications, though the Adenophorea were not in a uniform group. Initial studies of incomplete
DNA sequence DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. T ...
s suggested the existence of five
clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English ter ...
s: * Dorylaimida *
Enoplia The Enoplia are a subclass of nematodes in the class Enoplea. Description Enoplians are characterized by amphids shaped like ovals, stirrups, or pouches. Their bodies are smooth, without rings or lines. The esophagus is cylindrical and gland ...
* Spirurina * Tylenchina *
Rhabditina Subclass Rhabditia is mostly composed of parasitic nematodes (particularly in the Strongylida), though there are some free-living species as well (particularly in the Rhabditida). Phasmids (posterior sensory structures) are well-developed, while ...
The Secernentea seem to be a natural group of close relatives, while the "Adenophorea" appear to be a
paraphyletic In taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's last common ancestor and most of its descendants, excluding a few monophyletic subgroups. The group is said to be paraphyletic ''with respect to'' the excluded subgroups. In ...
assemblage of roundworms that retain a good number of ancestral traits. The old
Enoplia The Enoplia are a subclass of nematodes in the class Enoplea. Description Enoplians are characterized by amphids shaped like ovals, stirrups, or pouches. Their bodies are smooth, without rings or lines. The esophagus is cylindrical and gland ...
do not seem to be monophyletic, either, but do contain two distinct lineages. The old group " Chromadoria" seems to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the
Monhysterida The Monhysterida are an order in the phylum Nematoda. Usually the stoma In botany, a stoma (from Greek ''στόμα'', "mouth", plural "stomata"), also called a stomate (plural "stomates"), is a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stem ...
representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the
Diplogasteria Diplogasterida was an order of nematodes. It was sometimes placed in a monotypic subclass Diplogasteria, but molecular phylogenetic evidence has shown it to be embedded in the family Rhabditidae (formerly Rhabditina). The confusion of having a ...
may need to be united with the
Rhabditia Subclass Rhabditia is mostly composed of parasitic nematodes (particularly in the Strongylida), though there are some free-living species as well (particularly in the Rhabditida). Phasmids (posterior sensory structures) are well-developed, whil ...
, while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia. The understanding of roundworm systematics and
phylogeny A phylogenetic tree (also phylogeny or evolutionary tree Felsenstein J. (2004). ''Inferring Phylogenies'' Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA.) is a branching diagram or a tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological s ...
as of 2002 is summarised below: Phylum Nematoda * Basal order
Monhysterida The Monhysterida are an order in the phylum Nematoda. Usually the stoma In botany, a stoma (from Greek ''στόμα'', "mouth", plural "stomata"), also called a stomate (plural "stomates"), is a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stem ...
* Class Dorylaimida * Class
Enoplea Enoplea (enopleans) is a class, which with the classes SecernenteaTree of Life Web Project (ToL) (2002)Nematoda Version of January 1, 2002. Retrieved November 2, 2008. and Chromadorea make up the phylum Nematoda in current taxonomy. The Enop ...
* Class
Secernentea Secernentea was a class of nematodes in the Classical Phylogeny System (Chitwood, 1958) and is no longer in use. This morphological-based classification system has been replaced by the Modern Phylogeny system, where taxonomy assignment is based o ...
** Subclass
Diplogasteria Diplogasterida was an order of nematodes. It was sometimes placed in a monotypic subclass Diplogasteria, but molecular phylogenetic evidence has shown it to be embedded in the family Rhabditidae (formerly Rhabditina). The confusion of having a ...
(disputed) ** Subclass
Rhabditia Subclass Rhabditia is mostly composed of parasitic nematodes (particularly in the Strongylida), though there are some free-living species as well (particularly in the Rhabditida). Phasmids (posterior sensory structures) are well-developed, whil ...
(paraphyletic?) ** Subclass
Spiruria Subclass Spiruria comprises mostly parasitic secernentean nematodes. In an alternate classification, they are treated as suborder Spirurina, with the orders listed here being ranked as infraorders. The Ascaridida and the Oxyurida, which includ ...
** Subclass Tylenchia (disputed) * "
Chromadorea The Chromadorea are a class of the roundworm phylum, Nematoda. They contain a single subclass (Chromadoria) and several orders. With such a redundant arrangement, the Chromadoria are liable to be divided if the orders are found to form several ...
" assemblage Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades. The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea. In 2019, a study identified one
conserved signature indel Conserved signature inserts and deletions (CSIs) in protein sequences provide an important category of molecular markers for understanding phylogenetic relationships. CSIs, brought about by rare genetic changes, provide useful phylogenetic markers ...
(CSI) found exclusively in members of the phylum Nematoda through comparative genetic analyses. The CSI consists of a single amino acid insertion within a conserved region of a Na(+)/H(+) exchange regulatory factor protein NRFL-1 and is a molecular marker that distinguishes the phylum from other species. A major effort by a collaborative wiki called 959 Nematode Genomes is underway to improve the systematics of this phylum. An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid * subclass
Dorylaimia Dorylaimia is a subclass of nematodes. Description In general, members of subclass Dorylaimia exhibit a great diversity of terrestrial and freshwater species, most of which are large predators or omnivorous free-living species. Some are plant ...
* orders
Rhabditida Rhabditida is an order of free-living, zooparasitic, and phytoparasitic microbivorous nematodes living in soil. The Cephalobidae, Panagrolaimidae, Steinernematidae, and Strongyloididae seem to be closer to the Tylenchia, regardless of whet ...
, Trichinellida and
Mermithida Mermithida is an order of nematode worms. The order includes two families, and most members are endoparasites on arthropods. One of the morphological characteristic of the order is the presence of a stichosome Stichosome (from Greek ''stichos (� ...
* suborder
Rhabditina Subclass Rhabditia is mostly composed of parasitic nematodes (particularly in the Strongylida), though there are some free-living species as well (particularly in the Rhabditida). Phasmids (posterior sensory structures) are well-developed, while ...
* infraorders Spiruromorpha and Oxyuridomorpha In 2022 a new classification of the entire phylum Nematoda was presented by M. Hodda. It was based on current molecular, developmental and morphological evidence.


Anatomy

Nematodes are very small, slender worms: typically about 5 to 100 µm thick, and 0.1 to 2.5 mm long. The smallest nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as , and some parasitic species are larger still, reaching over in length. The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, bristles, or other distinctive structures. The head of a nematode is relatively distinct. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid 'head-shields' radiating outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear a series of teeth on their inner edges. An adhesive 'caudal gland' is often found at the tip of the tail. The
epidermis The epidermis is the outermost of the three layers that comprise the skin, the inner layers being the dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the amount of water rel ...
is either a
syncytium A syncytium (; plural syncytia; from Greek: σύν ''syn'' "together" and κύτος ''kytos'' "box, i.e. cell") or symplasm is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple cell fusions of uninuclear cells (i.e., cells with a single nucleu ...
or a single layer of cells, and is covered by a thick
collagen Collagen () is the main structural protein in the extracellular matrix found in the body's various connective tissues. As the main component of connective tissue, it is the most abundant protein in mammals, making up from 25% to 35% of the whol ...
ous
cuticle A cuticle (), or cuticula, is any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-mineral outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that provide protection. Various types of "cuticle" are non- homologous, differing in their origin, structu ...
. The cuticle is often of a complex structure and may have two or three distinct layers. Underneath the epidermis lies a layer of longitudinal
muscle Skeletal muscles (commonly referred to as muscles) are organs of the vertebrate muscular system and typically are attached by tendons to bones of a skeleton. The muscle cells of skeletal muscles are much longer than in the other types of mus ...
cells. The relatively rigid cuticle works with the muscles to create a hydroskeleton, as nematodes lack circumferential muscles. Projections run from the inner surface of muscle cells towards the nerve cords; this is a unique arrangement in the animal kingdom, in which nerve cells normally extend fibers into the muscles rather than ''vice versa''.


Digestive system

The oral cavity is lined with cuticle, which is often strengthened with structures, such as ridges, especially in carnivorous species, which may bear a number of teeth. The mouth often includes a sharp stylet, which the animal can thrust into its prey. In some species, the stylet is hollow and can be used to suck liquids from plants or animals. The oral cavity opens into a muscular, sucking
pharynx The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its st ...
, also lined with cuticle. Digestive glands are found in this region of the gut, producing
enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...
s that start to break down the food. In stylet-bearing species, these may even be injected into the prey. No
stomach The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach i ...
is present, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless
intestine The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organs of the digestive system, in humans an ...
that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single-cell-thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a
rectum The rectum is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the gut in others. The adult human rectum is about long, and begins at the rectosigmoid junction (the end of the sigmoid colon) at the l ...
, which expels waste through the
anus The anus (Latin, 'ring' or 'circle') is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, the residual semi-solid waste that remains after food digestion, which, ...
just below and in front of the tip of the tail. The movement of food through the digestive system is the result of the body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.


Excretory system

Nitrogenous waste Metabolic wastes or excrements are substances left over from metabolic processes (such as cellular respiration) which cannot be used by the organism (they are surplus or toxic), and must therefore be excreted. This includes nitrogen compounds, ...
is excreted in the form of
ammonia Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . A stable binary hydride, and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous ...
through the body wall, and is not associated with any specific organs. However, the structures for excreting salt to maintain osmoregulation are typically more complex. In many marine nematodes, one or two unicellular ' renette glands' excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialized cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.


Nervous system

Four peripheral
nerve A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers (called axons) in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses. It is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the ...
s run along the length of the body on the dorsal, ventral, and lateral surfaces. Each nerve lies within a cord of connective tissue lying beneath the cuticle and between the muscle cells. The ventral nerve is the largest, and has a double structure forward of the excretory pore. The dorsal nerve is responsible for motor control, while the lateral nerves are sensory, and the ventral combines both functions. The nervous system is also the only place in the nematode body that contains
cilia The cilium, plural cilia (), is a membrane-bound organelle found on most types of eukaryotic cell, and certain microorganisms known as ciliates. Cilia are absent in bacteria and archaea. The cilium has the shape of a slender threadlike proje ...
, which are all nonmotile and with a sensory function. At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense, circular nerve ( nerve ring) round surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the
brain A brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as Visual perception, vision. I ...
. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head. The bodies of nematodes are covered in numerous sensory
bristle A bristle is a stiff hair or feather (natural or artificial), either on an animal, such as a pig, a plant, or on a tool such as a brush or broom. Synthetic types Synthetic materials such as nylon are also used to make bristles in items such a ...
s and papillae that together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on the head lie two small pits, or ' amphids'. These are well supplied with nerve cells and are probably chemoreception organs. A few aquatic nematodes possess what appear to be
pigment A pigment is a colored material that is completely or nearly insoluble in water. In contrast, dyes are typically soluble, at least at some stage in their use. Generally dyes are often organic compounds whereas pigments are often inorganic compou ...
ed eye-spots, but whether or not these are actually sensory in nature is unclear.


Reproduction

Most nematode species are
dioecious Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproducti ...
, with separate male and female individuals, though some, such as ''
Caenorhabditis elegans ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' () is a free-living transparent nematode about 1 mm in length that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its genus. The name is a blend of the Greek ''caeno-'' (recent), ''rhabditis'' (r ...
'', are
androdioecious Androdioecy is a reproductive system characterized by the coexistence of males and hermaphrodites. Androdioecy is rare in comparison with the other major reproductive systems: dioecy, gynodioecy and hermaphroditism. In animals, androdioecy has bee ...
, consisting of
hermaphrodite In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes. Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have ...
s and rare males. Both sexes possess one or two tubular
gonad A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland is a mixed gland that produces the gametes and sex hormones of an organism. Female reproductive cells are egg cells, and male reproductive cells are sperm. The male gonad, the testicle, produces sp ...
s. In males, the sperm are produced at the end of the gonad and migrate along its length as they mature. The testis opens into a relatively wide seminal vesicle and then during intercourse into a glandular and muscular ejaculatory duct associated with the vas deferens and
cloaca In animal anatomy, a cloaca ( ), plural cloacae ( or ), is the posterior orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals. All amphibians, reptiles and birds, ...
. In females, the ovaries each open into an oviduct (in hermaphrodites, the eggs enter a spermatheca first) and then a glandular
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
. The uteri both open into a common vulva/vagina, usually located in the middle of the morphologically ventral surface. Reproduction is usually sexual, though hermaphrodites are capable of self-fertilization. Males are usually smaller than females or hermaphrodites (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically bent or fan-shaped tail. During
copulation Sexual intercourse (or coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion and thrusting of the penis into the vagina for sexual pleasure or reproduction.Sexual intercourse most commonly means penile–vaginal penetra ...
, one or more
chitin Chitin ( C8 H13 O5 N)n ( ) is a long-chain polymer of ''N''-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is probably the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chit ...
ized spicules move out of the cloaca and are inserted into the genital pore of the female. Amoeboid
sperm Sperm is the male reproductive cell, or gamete, in anisogamous forms of sexual reproduction (forms in which there is a larger, female reproductive cell and a smaller, male one). Animals produce motile sperm with a tail known as a flagellum, ...
crawl along the spicule into the female worm. Nematode sperm is thought to be the only eukaryotic cell without the globular protein G-actin. Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...
e, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the lifecycle is often much more complicated. Nematodes as a whole possess a wide range of modes of reproduction. Some nematodes, such as '' Heterorhabditis'' spp., undergo a process called endotokia matricida: intrauterine birth causing maternal death. Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-fertilized eggs inside the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes then ingest the parent nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low food supply. The nematode model species ''C. elegans'', '' C. briggsae'', and ''
Pristionchus pacificus ''Pristionchus pacificus'' is a species of free-living nematodes (roundworms) in the family Diplogastridae. The species has been established as a satellite model organism to ''Caenorhabditis elegans'', with which it shared a common ancestor 200 ...
'', among other species, exhibit androdioecy, which is otherwise very rare among animals. The single
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
''
Meloidogyne Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus ''Meloidogyne''. They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause appro ...
'' (root-knot nematodes) exhibits a range of reproductive modes, including
sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in which a gamete ( haploid reproductive cells, such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes combines with another gamete to produce a zygote th ...
, facultative sexuality (in which most, but not all, generations reproduce asexually), and both
meiotic Meiosis (; , since it is a reductional division) is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately res ...
and mitotic
parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek grc, παρθένος, translit=parthénos, lit=virgin, label=none + grc, γένεσις, translit=génesis, lit=creation, label=none) is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and developmen ...
. The genus '' Mesorhabditis'' exhibits an unusual form of parthenogenesis, in which sperm-producing males copulate with females, but the sperm do not fuse with the ovum. Contact with the sperm is essential for the ovum to begin dividing, but because no fusion of the cells occurs, the male contributes no genetic material to the offspring, which are essentially clones of the female.


Free-living species

Different free-living species feed on materials as varied as
bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were am ...
,
algae Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular micr ...
,
fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
, small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms, and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the
meiobenthos Meiobenthos, also called meiofauna, are small benthic invertebrates that live in both marine and fresh water environments. The term ''meiofauna'' loosely defines a group of organisms by their size, larger than microfauna but smaller than macrof ...
. They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments, and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note, ''C. elegans'', lives in the soil and has found much use as a
model organism A model organism (often shortened to model) is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insight into the workin ...
. ''C. elegans'' has had its entire genome sequenced, the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped.


Parasitic species

Nematodes that commonly parasitise humans include ascarids (''Ascaris''),
filaria ''Filaria'' is a genus of nematodes belonging to the family Filariidae. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution. Species: *''Filaria acutiuscula'' *''Filaria bufonis'' *''Filaria loliginis'' *''Filaria martis'' *''Filaria piscium'' *''Fil ...
s,
hookworm Hookworms are intestinal, blood-feeding, parasitic roundworms that cause types of infection known as helminthiases. Hookworm infection is found in many parts of the world, and is common in areas with poor access to adequate water, sanitation, ...
s, pinworms (''Enterobius''), and whipworms (''Trichuris trichiura''). The species ''
Trichinella spiralis ''Trichinella spiralis'' is a viviparous nematode parasite, occurring in rodents, pigs, bears, hyenas and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. It is sometimes referred to as the "pork worm" due to it being typically encount ...
'', commonly known as the 'trichina worm', occurs in rats, pigs, bears, and humans, and is responsible for the disease
trichinosis Trichinosis, also known as trichinellosis, is a parasitic disease caused by roundworms of the '' Trichinella'' type. During the initial infection, invasion of the intestines can result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Migration of ...
. '' Baylisascaris'' usually infests wild animals, but can be deadly to humans, as well. '' Dirofilaria immitis'' is known for causing heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats. '' Haemonchus contortus'' is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are mostly considered beneficial by humans, but some attack beneficial insects. One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of
fig The fig is the edible fruit of ''Ficus carica'', a species of small tree in the flowering plant family Moraceae. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world ...
fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens. A newly discovered parasitic tetradonematid nematode, ''
Myrmeconema neotropicum ''Myrmeconema neotropicum'' is a tetradonematid nematode parasite. It appears to induce fruit mimicry in the tropical ant. Presently the only known host species is ''Cephalotes atratus'', a South American ant with a black abdomen. Upon infectio ...
'', apparently induces fruit mimicry in the tropical ant '' Cephalotes atratus''. Infected ants develop bright red gasters (abdomens), tend to be more sluggish, and walk with their gasters in a conspicuous elevated position. These changes likely cause
frugivorous A frugivore is an animal that thrives mostly on raw fruits or succulent fruit-like produce of plants such as roots, shoots, nuts and seeds. Approximately 20% of mammalian herbivores eat fruit. Frugivores are highly dependent on the abundance an ...
birds to confuse the infected ants for berries, and eat them. Parasite eggs passed in the bird's
feces Feces ( or faeces), known colloquially and in slang as poo and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a rela ...
are subsequently collected by foraging ''C. atratus'' and are fed to their
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...
e, thus completing the lifecycle of ''M. neotropicum''. Similarly, multiple varieties of nematodes have been found in the abdominal cavities of the primitively social sweat bee, ''
Lasioglossum zephyrus ''Lasioglossum zephyrus'' is a sweat bee of the family Halictidae, found in the U.S. and Canada. It appears in the literature primarily under the misspelling "''zephyrum''". It is considered a primitively eusocial bee (meaning that they do not h ...
''. Inside the female body, the nematode hinders ovarian development and renders the bee less active, thus less effective in pollen collection.


Agriculture and horticulture

Depending on its species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural and
horticulture Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, technology, and business of plant cultivation. It includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and no ...
perspectives, the two categories of nematodes are the predatory ones, which kill garden pests; and the pest nematodes, which attack plants, or act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants. Predatory nematodes include ''
Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita ''Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita'' is a facultative parasitic nematode that can kill slugs and snails.Genena, M. A., Mostafa, F. A., Fouly, A. H., & Yousef, A. A. (2011). First record for the slug parasitic nematode, Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita ...
'' which is a lethal parasite of gastropods such as
slug Slug, or land slug, is a common name for any apparently shell-less terrestrial gastropod mollusc. The word ''slug'' is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell, a very reduced shell, or only a ...
s and
snail A snail is, in loose terms, a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name ''snail'' is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class ...
s. Some members of the genus '' Steinernema'' such as '' Steinernema carpocapsae'' and '' Steinernema riobrave'' are generalist parasites of webworms,
cutworm Cutworms are moth larvae that hide under litter or soil during the day, coming out in the dark to feed on plants. A larva typically attacks the first part of the plant it encounters, namely the stem, often of a seedling, and consequently cuts it ...
s, armyworms, girdlers, some
weevil Weevils are beetles belonging to the superfamily Curculionoidea, known for their elongated snouts. They are usually small, less than in length, and herbivorous. Approximately 97,000 species of weevils are known. They belong to several families, ...
s, wood-borers and corn earworm moths. These organisms are grown commercially as
biological pest control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also i ...
agents which can be used as an alternative to
pesticides Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and la ...
; their use is considered very safe. Plant-parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses, taking 10% of crops worldwide every year. The most common genera are ''
Aphelenchoides ''Aphelenchoides'' is a genus of mycetophagous nematodes. Some species are plant pathogenic foliar nematodes. Taxonomy In 1961 Sanwal listed 33 species and provided a key. The most important species of these are '' Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi ...
'' ( foliar nematodes), '' Ditylenchus'', '' Globodera'' (potato cyst nematodes), '' Heterodera'' (soybean cyst nematodes), ''
Longidorus ''Longidorus'' is a genus of needle nematodes. Some of its species are plant pests. They may also transmit important plant viruses such as the potato virus U or the cacao necrosis virus. Species are known to infest narcissus, alfalfa, bee ...
'', ''
Meloidogyne Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus ''Meloidogyne''. They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause appro ...
'' (
root-knot nematodes Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus ''Meloidogyne''. They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause appro ...
), '' Nacobbus'', '' Pratylenchus'' (lesion nematodes), '' Trichodorus'', and '' Xiphinema'' (dagger nematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is ''
Xiphinema index ''Xiphinema index'', the California dagger nematode, is a species of plant-parasitic nematodes. History A major pest of grapes, the California dagger nematode provided the first example of a nematode acting as a vector for a viral plant diseas ...
'', vector of grapevine fanleaf virus, an important disease of grapes, another one is '' Xiphinema diversicaudatum'', vector of
arabis mosaic virus ''Arabis mosaic virus'' is a viral plant pathogen that is known to infect multiple hosts. The pathogen, commonly referred to as ArMV, is from the family ''Secoviridae'', and it causes yellow dwarf of raspberry and is one of the causes of mosaic ...
''.'' Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is ''
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus ''Bursaphelenchus xylophilus'', commonly known as pine wood nematode or pine wilt nematode (PWN), is a species of nematode that infects trees in the ''Pinus'' genus of coniferous trees and causes the disease pine wilt.beneficial nematodes to control
fungus gnat Fungus gnats are small, dark, short-lived gnats, of the families Sciaridae, Diadocidiidae, Ditomyiidae, Keroplatidae, Bolitophilidae, and Mycetophilidae (order Diptera); they comprise six of the seven families placed in the superfamily Sc ...
s, the nematodes enter the larva of the gnats by way of their anus, mouth, and spiracles (breathing pores) and then release a
bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were am ...
which kills the gnat larvae; commonly used nematode species to control pests on greenhouse crops include '' Steinernema feltiae'' for fungus gnats and western flower thrips, '' Steinernema carpocapsae'' used to control shore flies, ''Steinernema kraussei'' for control of black vine weevils, and ''
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora ''Heterorhabditis bacteriophora'' is a species of entomopathogenic nematode known commonly as beneficial nematodes. They are microscopic and are used in gardening as a form of biological pest control. They are used to control ants, fleas, moths, ...
'' to control beetle larvae. Rotations of plants with nematode-resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effect is cumulative), can be used to control nematodes. Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as the fungus '' Gliocladium roseum''. Chitosan, a natural biocontrol, elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasitic
cyst A cyst is a closed sac, having a distinct envelope and division compared with the nearby tissue. Hence, it is a cluster of cells that have grouped together to form a sac (like the manner in which water molecules group together to form a bubble) ...
nematodes on roots of
soybean The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses. Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu ...
,
corn Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The ...
,
sugar beet A sugar beet is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of sucrose and which is grown commercially for sugar production. In plant breeding, it is known as the Altissima cultivar group of the common beet ('' Beta vulgaris''). Together ...
,
potato The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern Uni ...
, and
tomato The tomato is the edible berry of the plant ''Solanum lycopersicum'', commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Mexican Nahuatl word gave rise to the Spanish word ...
crops without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil. Soil steaming is an efficient method to kill nematodes before planting a crop, but indiscriminately eliminates both harmful and beneficial soil fauna. The golden nematode '' Globodera rostochiensis'' is a particularly harmful variety of nematode pest that has resulted in quarantines and crop failures worldwide.
CSIRO The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is an Australian Government agency responsible for scientific research. CSIRO works with leading organisations around the world. From its headquarters in Canberra, CSIRO ...
has found a 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots having Indian mustard ''
Brassica juncea ''Brassica juncea'', commonly brown mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard, Oriental mustard and vegetable mustard, is a species of mustard plant. Cultivar ''Brassica juncea'' cultivars can be divided into four major subgroup ...
'' green manure or seed meal in the soil.


Epidemiology

A number of intestinal nematodes cause diseases affecting human beings, including
ascariasis Ascariasis is a disease caused by the parasitic roundworm ''Ascaris lumbricoides''. Infections have no symptoms in more than 85% of cases, especially if the number of worms is small. Symptoms increase with the number of worms present and may i ...
,
trichuriasis Trichuriasis, also known as whipworm infection, is an infection by the parasitic worm '' Trichuris trichiura'' (whipworm). If infection is only with a few worms, there are often no symptoms. In those who are infected with many worms, there may ...
, and hookworm disease. Filarial nematodes cause filariases. Furthermore, studies have shown that parasitic nematodes infect American eels causing damage to the eel's swim bladder, dairy animals like cattle and buffalo, and all species of sheep. Gastrointestinal nematode infections in humans are common, with approximately 50% of the global population being affected. Developing countries are most heavily impacted, in part due to lack of access to medical care.


Soil ecosystems

About 90% of nematodes reside in the top 15 cm (6") of soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic matter, but, instead, are parasitic and free-living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial population and community composition—they may eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Also, nematodes can play an important role in the
nitrogen cycle The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biolo ...
by way of nitrogen mineralization. One group of carnivorous fungi, the
nematophagous fungi Nematophagous fungi are carnivorous fungi specialized in trapping and digesting nematodes. Around 160 species are known. There exist both species that live inside the nematodes from the beginning and others that catch them, mostly with glue tra ...
, are predators of soil nematodes. They set enticements for the nematodes in the form of lassos or adhesive structures.


Survivability

Nematode worms (''C. elegans''), part of an ongoing research project conducted on the 2003 Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' mission STS-107, survived the re-entry breakup. It is believed to be the first known life form to survive a virtually unprotected atmospheric descent to Earth's surface. In a research project published in 2012, it was found that the Antarctic Nematodes (''P. davidi'') was able to withstand intracellular freezing depending on how well it was fed. When compared between fed and starved nematodes, the survival rate increased in the fed group and decreased in the starved group.


See also

* * * * * Soil food web * : A
helminth Parasitic worms, also known as helminths, are large macroparasites; adults can generally be seen with the naked eye. Many are intestinal worms that are soil-transmitted and infect the gastrointestinal tract. Other parasitic worms such as ...
infection of humans caused by the dog or cat roundworm, '' Toxocara canis'' or ''
Toxocara cati ''Toxocara cati'', also known as the feline roundworm, is a parasite of cats and other felids. It is one of the most common nematodes of cats, infecting both wild and domestic felids worldwide. Adult worms are localised in the gut of the host. ...
'' *


References


Further reading

* * * n Russian * * * * *


External links


Harper Adams University College Nematology Research

Nematodes/roundworms of man
* http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/ecdysozoa/nematoda.html
European Society of Nematologists

Nematode.net: Repository of parasitic nematode sequences.
* http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020914155908/http://www.nematodes.org/
NeMys World free-living Marine Nematodes database



International Federation of Nematology Societies

Society of Nematologists

Australasian Association of Nematologists

Research on nematodes and longevity

Nematode on BBC

Nematode worms in an aquarium


on the UF / * IFAS Featured Creatures Web site {{Authority control Articles containing video clips Nematoida Composting Garden pests Organic gardening Pest control Ediacaran first appearances Extremophiles Cosmopolitan animals