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Gaius Musonius Rufus (; grc-gre, Μουσώνιος Ῥοῦφος) was a Roman Stoic
philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...
of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
during the reign of
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
and so was sent into exile in 65 AD, returning to Rome only under
Galba Galba (; born Servius Sulpicius Galba; 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69) was the sixth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 68 to 69. After his adoption by his stepmother, and before becoming emperor, he was known as Livius Ocella Sulpicius Ga ...
. He was allowed to stay in Rome when
Vespasian Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Emp ...
banished all other philosophers from the city in 71 AD although he was eventually banished anyway, returning only after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts from his lectures still survives. He is also remembered for being the teacher of
Epictetus Epictetus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκτητος, ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when ...
and
Dio Chrysostom Dio Chrysostom (; el, Δίων Χρυσόστομος ''Dion Chrysostomos''), Dion of Prusa or Cocceianus Dio (c. 40 – c. 115 AD), was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD. Eighty of hi ...
.


Life

The son of a Roman eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in Volsinii,
Etruria Etruria () was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now most of Tuscany, northern Lazio, and northern and western Umbria. Etruscan Etruria The ancient people of Etruria are identified as Etruscans. Thei ...
about 20–30 AD. By the time of Nero, he was already famous in
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
, where he taught Stoic philosophy. He was associated with the
Stoic Opposition The Stoic Opposition is the name given to a group of Stoic philosophers who actively opposed the autocratic rule of certain emperors in the 1st-century, particularly Nero and Domitian. Most prominent among them was Thrasea Paetus, an influential ...
against the perceived tyranny of Nero. He followed Rubellius Plautus into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD). He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching
Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting tha ...
, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of
Gyaros Gyaros ( el, Γυάρος ), also locally known as Gioura ( el, Γιούρα), is an arid, unpopulated, and uninhabited Greek island in the northern Cyclades near the islands of Andros and Tinos, with an area of . It is a part of the municipality ...
(65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in the Pisonian conspiracy. While Gyaros was "harsh and devoid of human culture", Musonius was able to survive and form a small community of philosophers. He specifically refers to his time in exile in his ninth discourse, pointing out its advantages for a practitioner of Stoicism. He returned under
Galba Galba (; born Servius Sulpicius Galba; 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69) was the sixth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 68 to 69. After his adoption by his stepmother, and before becoming emperor, he was known as Livius Ocella Sulpicius Ga ...
(68 AD). When Marcus Antonius Primus, the general of
Vespasian Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Emp ...
, was marching upon
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
(69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by
Vitellius Aulus Vitellius (; ; 24 September 1520 December 69) was Roman emperor for eight months, from 19 April to 20 December AD 69. Vitellius was proclaimed emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of ci ...
to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop. When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of,
Publius Egnatius Celer Publius Egnatius Celer, (lived c. AD 60), was a Stoic philosopher, who as a result of being a ''delator'', or informer, in the reign of Nero, was sentenced to death in the reign of Vespasian. Treason charges were brought against Barea Soranus i ...
, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned
Barea Soranus Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman senator who lived in the reign of Nero. He was suffect consul in 52, but later attracted the hatred of Nero, and upon being condemned to death committed suicide. He was associated with a group of Stoic ...
. It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught
Epictetus Epictetus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκτητος, ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when ...
, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD), but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when Pliny speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.


Writings

It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of ''Discourses'', by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by Stobaeus. A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers. The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows: # That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem # That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue # That Women Too Should Study Philosophy # Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons? # Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice? # On Training # That One Should Disdain Hardships # That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy # That Exile is not an Evil # Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury? # What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher? # On Sexual Indulgence # What is the Chief End of Marriage # Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy? # Should Every Child that is Born be Raised? # Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances? # What is the Best Viaticum for Old Age? # On Food # On Clothing and Shelter # On Furnishings # On Cutting the Hair


Philosophy

His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil,
Epictetus Epictetus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκτητος, ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when ...
, is marked by its strong practical tendency. The philosophy he would have everyone cultivate is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but one that everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for himself.Heinrich Ritter, ''The History of Ancient Philosophy'', Alexander James William Morrison, tr. (London, 1846), vol. IV, p. 190. Still, he considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair to grow, and to retire from general society. At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind.Ritter, p. 191. His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action. He does not reject
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...
: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the
fallacy A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning, or "wrong moves," in the construction of an argument which may appear stronger than it really is if the fallacy is not spotted. The term in the Western intellectual tradition was intr ...
which perplexes it; yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the
sophists A sophist ( el, σοφιστής, sophistes) was a teacher in ancient Greece in the fifth and fourth centuries BC. Sophists specialized in one or more subject areas, such as philosophy, rhetoric, music, athletics, and mathematics. They taught ' ...
.Ritter, p. 192. He gives only a little attention to the physical doctrines of the Stoics; he asserts that the
gods A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater ...
know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown. The human
soul In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being". Etymology The Modern English noun '' soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest att ...
he considers to be akin to the gods, and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed.Ritter, p. 193. He strongly asserts the liberty of the rational soul ( el, διάνοια). Musonius pays much more attention to
ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concer ...
than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and women, should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue. He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the
mind The mind is the set of faculties responsible for all mental phenomena. Often the term is also identified with the phenomena themselves. These faculties include thought, imagination, memory, will, and sensation. They are responsible for various m ...
is filled from
childhood A child (plural, : children) is a human being between the stages of childbirth, birth and puberty, or between the Development of the human body, developmental period of infancy and puberty. The legal definition of ''child'' generally refers ...
, and the evil habits confirmed by practices.Ritter, p. 194. Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept. He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.Ritter, p. 195. A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature. He combats all selfishness, and regards
marriage Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognized union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and between ...
not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole human race. He zealously protests against the exposure of children as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of
benevolence Benevolence or Benevolent may refer to: * Benevolent (band) * Benevolence (phrenology), a faculty in the discredited theory of phrenology * "Benevolent" (song), a song by Tory Lanez * Benevolence (tax), a forced loan imposed by English kings from ...
. His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for diet, the care of the body,
clothing Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel, and attire) are items worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natura ...
, and even
furniture Furniture refers to movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating (e.g., stools, chairs, and sofas), eating ( tables), storing items, eating and/or working with an item, and sleeping (e.g., beds and hammocks) ...
. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the
beard A beard is the hair that grows on the jaw, chin, upper lip, lower lip, cheeks, and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, usually pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. Throughout the course of history, societal at ...
on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body. He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking. Musonius argued because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue is the same, both should be trained in philosophy.Diotima
''Philosophers on the Role of Women''


Notes


Further reading


Translations

* Cora Lutz, (1947)
''Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates''
Printed in: ''Yale Classical Studies'', Volume X. Edited by A. R. Bellinger. Yale University Press. * Cynthia King, (2011), ''Musonius Rufus: Lectures and Sayings''. Edited by William B. Irvine. CreateSpace.


Studies

* J. T. Dillon, (2004), ''Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life: A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue''. University Press of America. * L. Dottarelli, (2015), "Musonio l'Etrusco. La filosofia come scienza di vita", ''Annulli Editori'' .


External links

* Diotima
''Philosophers on the Role of Women''



Musonius Rufus
entry in the
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''IEP'') is a scholarly online encyclopedia, dealing with philosophy, philosophical topics, and philosophers. The IEP combines open access publication with peer reviewed publication of original p ...

Online edition of Lectures and Fragments
{{DEFAULTSORT:Musonius Rufus, Gaius 1st-century births 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Romans Ethicists Feminist philosophers Logicians Male feminists Members of the Pisonian conspiracy Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of sexuality Philosophers of Roman Italy Roman-era Stoic philosophers Virtue ethicists Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Ancient Roman delatores