There were several Mongol invasions of Tibet. The earliest is the alleged plot to invade Tibet by
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
in 1206, which is considered anachronistic; there is no evidence of Mongol-Tibetan encounters prior to the military campaign in 1240.
[Wylie. p.106] The first confirmed campaign is the invasion of Tibet by the Mongol general Doorda Darkhan in 1240, a campaign of 30,000 troops that resulted in 500 casualties.
[Wylie. p.104] The campaign was smaller than the full-scale invasions used by the Mongols against large empires. The purpose of this attack is unclear, and is still in debate among Tibetologists.
[Wylie. p.103] Then in the late 1240s Mongol prince
Godan invited
Sakya lama
Sakya Pandita
Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (Tibetan: ས་སྐྱ་པཎ་ཌི་ཏ་ཀུན་དགའ་རྒྱལ་མཚན, ) (1182 – 28 November 1251) was a Tibetan spiritual leader and Buddhist scholar and the fourth of the Five S ...
, who urged other leading Tibetan figures to submit to Mongol authority. This is generally considered to have marked the beginning of Mongol rule over Tibet, as well as the establishment of
patron and priest relationship __NOTOC__
The priest and patron relationship, also written as priest-patron or cho-yon (; ), is the Tibetan political theory that the relationship between Tibet and China referred to a symbiotic link between a spiritual leader and a lay patron, suc ...
between Mongols and Tibetans. These relations were continued by
Kublai Khan
Kublai ; Mongolian script: ; (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder of the Yuan dynasty of China and the fifth khagan-emperor of ...
, who founded the Mongol
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
and granted authority over whole Tibet to
Drogon Chogyal Phagpa, nephew of Sakya Pandita. The Sakya-Mongol administrative system and
Yuan administrative rule over the region lasted until the mid-14th century, when the Yuan dynasty began to crumble.
In the early 17th century, the
Oirat Mongols again conquered the region and established the
Khoshut Khanate. Since then the Mongols had intervened in Tibetan politics until the
Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
conquest of
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
and
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
.
Invasion
Prior to 1240
According to one traditional Tibetan account, the Mongol emperor
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
plotted to invade Tibet in 1206, but was dissuaded when the Tibetans promised to pay tribute to the Mongols. Modern scholars consider the account to be anachronistic and factually wrong. Genghis' campaign was targeted at the
Tangut kingdom of
Western Xia
The Western Xia or the Xi Xia (), officially the Great Xia (), also known as the Tangut Empire, and known as ''Mi-nyak''Stein (1972), pp. 70–71. to the Tanguts and Tibetans, was a Tangut-led Buddhist imperial dynasty of China tha ...
, not Tibet, and there was certainly no tribute being paid to the Mongols prior to 1240. There is no evidence of interaction between the two nations prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion in 1240.
The earliest real Mongol contact with the ethnic
Tibetan people
The Tibetan people (; ) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Tibet. Their current population is estimated to be around 6.7 million. In addition to the majority living in Tibet Autonomous Region of China, significant numbers of Tibetans liv ...
came in 1236, when a Tibetan chief near
Wenxian submitted to the Mongols campaigning against the
Jin dynasty in
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
.
1240-1241 invasion
In 1240, the Mongol Prince
Godan,
Ögedei's son and
Güyük's younger brother, "delegated the command of the Tibetan invasion to the
Tangut general, Doorda
Darqan (Dor-ta)". The expedition was "the first instance of military conflict between the two nations".
The attack consisted of 30,000 men (possibly much smaller than that) and resulted in 500 casualties,
along with the burning of the
Kadampa monasteries of
Rwa-sgreṅ and Rgyal-lha-khang.
The campaign was smaller than the full-scale invasions used by the Mongols against large empires. According to
Turrell V. Wylie, that much is in agreement among Tibetologists. However, the purpose of invasion is disputed among Tibetan scholars, partly because of the abundance of anachronistic and factually erroneous sources.
However, modern studies find that the oldest sources credit the Mongol scouts with burning Rgyal-lha-khang only, while a large number of Rwa-sgreng monks were slain. The bKa’-brgyud-pa monasteries of
sTag-lung and
’Bri-gung, with their old link to the
Western Xia
The Western Xia or the Xi Xia (), officially the Great Xia (), also known as the Tangut Empire, and known as ''Mi-nyak''Stein (1972), pp. 70–71. to the Tanguts and Tibetans, was a Tangut-led Buddhist imperial dynasty of China tha ...
dynasty, were spared because Doorda himself was a Tangut Buddhist. The
’Bri-gung abbot or, according to
Petech, the Rwa-sgreng abbot, suggested the Mongols had invited the
Sakya hierarch,
Sakya Pandita
Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (Tibetan: ས་སྐྱ་པཎ་ཌི་ཏ་ཀུན་དགའ་རྒྱལ་མཚན, ) (1182 – 28 November 1251) was a Tibetan spiritual leader and Buddhist scholar and the fourth of the Five S ...
. After he met Godan, Sakya Pandita died there leaving his two nephews. Sakya Pandita convinced other monasteries in Central Tibet to align with the Mongols. The Mongols kept them as hostages referring symbolic surrender of Tibet.
One view, considered the most traditional, is that the attack was a retaliation on Tibet caused by the Tibetan refusal to pay tribute.
Wylie points out that the Tibetans stopped paying tribute in 1227, while Doorda Darkhan's invasion was in 1240, suggesting that the Mongols, not known for their empathy, would not wait over a decade to respond. The text from which this claim is based on also makes other anachronistic mistakes, insisting that Genghis was planning to attack Tibet prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion, when the real campaign was against the
Tangut kingdom of Western Xia.
Another theory, supported by Wylie, is that the military action was a
reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops ( skirmishe ...
campaign meant to evaluate the political situation in Tibet.
[Wylie. p.110] The Mongols hoped to find a single monarch with whom they could threaten into submission, but instead found a Tibet that was religiously and politically divided, without a central government.
A third view is that the troops were sent as raids and "looting parties", and that the goal of the campaign was to pillage the "wealth amassed in the Tibetan monasteries". This is disputed, as the Mongols deliberately avoided attacking certain monasteries, a questionable decision if their only goal was profit.
Whatever the purpose of the invasion, the Mongols withdrew in 1241, as all the Mongol princes were recalled back to Mongolia in preparation for the appointment of a successor to
Ogedai Khan. In 1244, the Mongols returned to Tibet. They invited Sakya Pandita to Godan's camp, where he agreed to capitulate Tibet, after the Mongols threatened a full-scale invasion of the region.
1244 invasion under Möngke Khan
Sa-skya Pandita died in 1251 and his master Godan Khan possibly died at the same time (or, according to other sources, after 1253).
Möngke Khan
Möngke ( mn, ' / Мөнх '; ; 11 January 1209 – 11 August 1259) was the fourth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251, to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reform ...
became
Khagan
Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...
in the same year. Some sources say there was a Mongolian invasion in 1251, in retribution for a failure to pay tribute, or in 1251-2 'to take formal possession of the country'. In order to strengthen his control over
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
, Möngke made Qoridai commander of the Mongol and Han troops in
Turpan
Turpan (also known as Turfan or Tulufan, , ug, تۇرپان) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 632,000 (2015).
Geonyms
The original name of the cit ...
in 1251. Two attacks are mentioned, one led by Dörbetei, the other by Qoridai, and the double campaign struck fear into the Tibetans. Tibetan sources however only mention an attack on a place called ''Bod kyi-mon-mkhar-mgpon-po-gdong''. Wyle is sceptical however of all of these sources, arguing that the lack of substantive evidence for an invasion raises doubts about the extent of Mongol movements in Tibet proper.' He concludes:-
:
"Excluding the 1252 attack against the unidentified ''Mon-mkmar-mgon-po-gdong'' mentioned earlier, there seems to be no evidence to prove the presence of Mongol troops in central Tibet during the two decades that 'Phags-pa Lama was away from Sa-skya (1244-65). During those years, external campaigns of conquest and internal feuds between scions of the sons of Chinggis Khan occupied the attention of the Mongols. Tibet, whose formidable terrain was politically fragmented by local lords and lamas, posed no military threat to the Mongols, and it was all but ignored by them."
In 1252-53 Qoridai invaded Tibet, reaching as far as
Damxung. The Central Tibetan monasteries submitted to the Mongols. Möngke divided the lands of Tibet between his relatives as their
appanage
An appanage, or apanage (; french: apanage ), is the grant of an estate, title, office or other thing of value to a younger child of a sovereign, who would otherwise have no inheritance under the system of primogeniture. It was common in much o ...
s in accordance with
Great Jasag of Genghis Khan. Many Mongol aristocrats including Khagan himself seem to have sought blessings of prominent Tibetan lamas. Möngke Khan patronized
Karma Baqshi (1204–83) of the
Karma-pa suborder and the ’Bri-gung Monastery, while
Hulagu, khan of the
Mongols
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
in the Middle East, sent lavish gifts to both ’Bri-gung and the
Phag-mo-gru-pa suborder's gDan-sa-thel monastery. Later
William Rubruck reports that he saw Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian Buddhist monks at the capital city,
Karakorum
Karakorum ( Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорум, ''Kharkhorum''; Mongolian Script:, ''Qaraqorum''; ) was the capital of the Mongol Empire between 1235 and 1260 and of the Northern Yuan dynasty in the 14–15th centuries. Its ruins lie in t ...
, of the Mongol Empire.
Although, Karmapa of the
Karma Kagyu
Karma Kagyu (), or Kamtsang Kagyu (), is a widely practiced and probably the second-largest lineage within the Kagyu school, one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The lineage has long-standing monasteries in Tibet, China, Russia, ...
school politely refused to stay with him, preferring his brother the Khagan, in 1253 Prince Kubilai summoned to his court the Sa-skya-pa hierarch's two nephews, Blo-gros rGyal-mtshan, known as
’Phags-Pa lama (1235–80), and Phyag-na rDo-rje (1239-67) from the late Godan's ordo in Liangzhou. Khubilai Khan first met 'Phags-pa lama in 1253, presumably to bring the Sa-skya lama who resided in Köden's domain, and who was a symbol of Tibetan surrender, to his own camp. At first Kublai remained
shamanist
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiri ...
, but his chief khatun,
Chabui (Chabi), converted to Buddhism and influenced Kublai's religious view. During Kublai's expedition into Yunnan, his number two, Uriyangkhadai, had to station in Tibet in 1254-55 possibly to suppress war-like tribes in Tibet. Hulegu appointed his representative, Kokochu, in Tibet in mid-1250s while marching towards Iran.
Since then, the Ilkhans had had possessions in Tibet.
In 1265 Qongridar ravaged the Tufan/mDo-smad area, and from 1264 to 1275 several campaigns pacified the Tibetan and Yi peoples of Xifan around modern Xichang. By 1278 Mongol myriarchies: tumens and postroads reached through () as far west as Litang.
Aftermath
Tibet was subdued to the
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
under Mongolian administrative rule, but the region was granted with a degree of political autonomy. Kublai Khan would later include Tibet into his
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
, and the region remained administratively separate from the conquered provinces of
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
China.
According to the Tibetan traditional view, the khan and the lama established "
priest-patron __NOTOC__
The priest and patron relationship, also written as priest-patron or cho-yon (; ), is the Tibetan political theory that the relationship between Tibet and China referred to a symbiotic link between a spiritual leader and a lay patron, suc ...
" relations. This meant administrative management and military assistance from the khan and assistance from the lama in spiritual issues. Tibet was conquered by the Mongols before the Mongol invasion of South China.
[Laird 2006, pp. 114-117] After the conquest of the Song dynasty, Kublai Khan consolidated Tibet into the new Yuan dynasty, but Tibet was administrated under the
Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs __NOTOC__
The Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs, or Xuanzheng Yuan () was a government agency of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China to handle Buddhist affairs across the empire in addition to managing the territory of Tibet. It was origi ...
(Xuanzheng Yuan), separate from the Chinese provinces. The Mongols granted the
Sakya lama a degree political authority, but retained control over the administration and military of the region.
As efforts to rule both territories while preserving Mongol identity,
Kublai Khan
Kublai ; Mongolian script: ; (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder of the Yuan dynasty of China and the fifth khagan-emperor of ...
prohibited Mongols from marrying Chinese, but left both the Chinese and Tibetan legal and administrative systems intact. Though most government institutions established by Kublai Khan in his court resembled the ones in earlier Chinese dynasties, Tibet never adopted the
imperial examination
The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
s or
Neo-Confucian policies.
Buddhist monks from Tibet were popular and well respected in Mongol-ruled Iran (the Ilkhanate),
Mongolia, China (the Yuan) and Central Asia (the Chagatai Khanate). Towards the end of the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
in the mid-14th century, Tibet regained its independence from the Mongols.
Post imperial expedition
The
Oirats
Oirats ( mn, Ойрад, ''Oirad'', or , Oird; xal-RU, Өөрд; zh, 瓦剌; in the past, also Eleuths) are the westernmost group of the Mongols whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of Siberia, Xinjiang and western Mongolia.
Histor ...
converted to
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
around 1615, and it was not long before they became involved in the conflict between the
Gelug
240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India).">Bodh_Gaya.html" ;"title="Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya">Bodhgaya (India).
The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuou ...
and
Karma Kagyu
Karma Kagyu (), or Kamtsang Kagyu (), is a widely practiced and probably the second-largest lineage within the Kagyu school, one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The lineage has long-standing monasteries in Tibet, China, Russia, ...
schools. At the request of the Gelug school, in 1637,
Güshi Khan
Güshi Khan (1582 – 14 January 1655; ) was a Khoshut prince and founder of the Khoshut Khanate, who supplanted the Tumed descendants of Altan Khan as the main benefactor of the Dalai Lama and the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1637, Güshi ...
, the leader of the
Khoshuts in
Koko Nor
Qinghai Lake or Ch'inghai Lake, also known by other names, is the largest lake in China. Located in an endorheic basin in Qinghai Province, to which it gave its name, Qinghai Lake is classified as an alkaline salt lake. The lake has fluctuat ...
, defeated
Choghtu Khong Tayiji (1581-1637), the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school.
Tsogtu Khuntaiji had established a base on the
Tuul river. Known as an intellectual, he embraced the Karma sect and built monasteries and castles. He submitted himself to
Ligdan Khan, last grand khan of the Mongols. He took part in Ligdan's campaign to
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
to help the Karma sect although Ligdan Khan died in 1634 before they joined. But Tsogtu pursued the campaign. In the same year he conquered the
Tümed
The Tümed (Tumad, ; "The many or ten thousands" derived from Tumen) are a Mongol subgroup. They live in Tumed Left Banner, district of Hohhot and Tumed Right Banner, district of Baotou in China. Most engage in sedentary agriculture, living in m ...
around
Kokonor (Qinghai Lake) and moved his base there. By request from Shamar Rabjampa he sent an army under his son Arslan to central Tibet in 1635. However, Arslan attacked his ally, the
Tsang army. He met the
fifth Dalai Lama
Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (; ; 1617–1682) was the 5th Dalai Lama and the first Dalai Lama to wield effective temporal and spiritual power over all Tibet. He is often referred to simply as the Great Fifth, being a key religious and temporal leader ...
and paid homage to Gelukpa monasteries instead of destroying them. Arslan was eventually assassinated by Choghtu's order.
The Geluk sect asked for help Törü Bayikhu (Güshi Khan), the leader of the
Khoshut tribe of the
Oirat confederation. In 1636 Törö Bayikhu led the Khoshuts and the
Dzungars
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') were the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically they were one of major tr ...
to Tibet. In the next year a decisive war between Tsogtu Khuntaiji and Törü Bayikhu ended in the latter's victory and Tsoghtu was killed.
He has traditionally been portrayed as evil by the Geluk sect. On the other hand, the Mongolian movie "Tsogt taij" (1945) treated him as a national hero. It reflected the communist regime's attitude toward Tibetan Buddhism.
With his crushing victory over Tsogtu, Güshi Khan conquered
Amdo
Amdo ( �am˥˥.to˥˥ ) is one of the three traditional Tibetan regions, the others being U-Tsang in the west and Kham in the east. Ngari (including former Guge kingdom) in the north-west was incorporated into Ü-Tsang. Amdo is also the bi ...
(present-day
Qinghai
Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest po ...
). The unification of
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
followed in 1641–42, when Güshi Khan invaded Central Tibet and defeated the indigenous
Tsangpa
Tsangpa (; ) was a dynasty that dominated large parts of Tibet from 1565 to 1642. It was the last Tibetan royal dynasty to rule in their own name. The regime was founded by Karma Tseten, a low-born retainer of the prince of the Rinpungpa Dynasty ...
Dynasty. After his victory he was proclaimed (
chogyal
The Chogyal ("Dharma Kings", ) were the monarchs of the former Kingdom of Sikkim, which belonged to the Namgyal dynasty. The Chogyal was the absolute monarch of Sikkim from 1642 to 1975, when the monarchy was abolished and the Sikkimese peop ...
), i.e. the King of Dharma, or Teaching, by the
Fifth Dalai Lama
Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (; ; 1617–1682) was the 5th Dalai Lama and the first Dalai Lama to wield effective temporal and spiritual power over all Tibet. He is often referred to simply as the Great Fifth, being a key religious and temporal leader ...
. With these events the establishment of a
Khoshut Khanate was confirmed. Gushi khan granted to the Dalai Lama authority over Tibet from Dartsedo to Ladakh. The title "
Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama (, ; ) is a title given by the Tibetan people to the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest and most dominant of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th and current D ...
" itself had previously been bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug
tulku
A ''tulku'' (, also ''tülku'', ''trulku'') is a reincarnate custodian of a specific lineage of teachings in Tibetan Buddhism who is given empowerments and trained from a young age by students of his or her predecessor.
High-profile examples ...
lineage by
Altan Khan
Altan Khan of the Tümed (1507–1582; mn, ᠠᠯᠲᠠᠨ ᠬᠠᠨ, Алтан хан; Chinese: 阿勒坦汗), whose given name was Anda ( Mongolian: ; Chinese: 俺答), was the leader of the Tümed Mongols and de facto ruler of the Right Win ...
(not to be confused with the
Altan Khans of the Khalkha), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom."
Resurfacing of the struggle between Dzungar Khanate and Qing dynasty
Intervention in Tibet
Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. The descendants of Güshi Khan continued to rule as Dharma kings (chogyals) of Tibet, although they were eclipsed by the Dalai Lama and his regent for long periods. In 1717, however, the
Dzungars
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') were the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically they were one of major tr ...
, led by
Tsewang Rabtan's brother Tsering Dondup, invaded Tibet. The invaders defeated and killed
Lha-bzang Khan (the last khan of the
Khoshut Khanate), a great-grandson of Güshi Khan and the fifth Dharma king of Tibet. The Dzungars deposed a pretender to the position of the Dalai Lama who had previously been promoted by Lha-bzang Khan. The
5th Dalai Lama
Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (; ; 1617–1682) was the 5th Dalai Lama and the first Dalai Lama to wield effective temporal and spiritual power over all Tibet. He is often referred to simply as the Great Fifth, being a key religious and temporal leader ...
had encouraged Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-dGe-lugs-pa teaching among the
Mongols
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
. The Dzungars soon began to loot
Lhasa
Lhasa (; Lhasa dialect: ; bo, text=ལྷ་ས, translation=Place of Gods) is the urban center of the prefecture-level Lhasa City and the administrative capital of Tibet Autonomous Region in Southwest China. The inner urban area of Lhasa ...
, thus losing initial Tibetan goodwill towards them. Many
Nyingmapa
Nyingma (literally 'old school') is the oldest of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. It is also often referred to as ''Ngangyur'' (, ), "order of the ancient translations". The Nyingma school is founded on the first lineages and transl ...
and
Bonpos were executed and Tibetans visiting Dzungar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Dzungars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras. This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.
The Dzungar invasion was a challenge to the imperial policy of the
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...
, since Lha-bzang Khan had been allied to the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
. The Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition suffered inadequate logistics and was annihilated by the Dzungars at the
Battle of the Salween River not far from Lhasa.
A second and larger expedition was dispatched by the Emperor and met with rapid success. The Manchus expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought
Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.
[Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). ''Tibet and its History''. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. (pbk)] In 1723
Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, defended Amdo against Qing dynasty's attempts to extend its rule into Tibet, but was crushed in the following year. Thus, Amdo fell under Chinese domination.
See also
*
Tibet under Yuan rule
*
Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
The 1720 Chinese expedition to Tibet () or the Chinese conquest of Tibet in 1720 was a military expedition sent by the Qing dynasty to expel the invading forces of the Dzungar Khanate from Tibet and establish Qing rule over the region, which las ...
References
Citations
Sources
*
* Laird, Thomas. ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'' (2006) Grove Press.
* Rossabi, Morris. ''China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries'' (1983) Univ. of California Press.
* Sanders, Alan J. K. ''Historical dictionary of Mongolia'' (2003) Scarecrow Press.
* Saunders, John Joseph. ''The history of the Mongol conquests''. (2001) University of Pennsylvania Press.
*
Shakabpa, W.D. ''Tibet: A Political History.'' (1967) Yale University Press.
* Smith, Warren W., Jr. ''Tibetan Nation: A History Of Tibetan Nationalism And Sino-tibetan Relations'' (1997) Westview Press.
* Wylie, Turrell V
''The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 37, no. 1, 1977, pp. 103–133.
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Tibet
Military history of Tibet
Military history of Mongolia
Wars involving the Mongol Empire
13th-century conflicts
13th century in Tibet
17th-century conflicts
17th century in Tibet
18th-century conflicts
18th century in Tibet
History of Tibet
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
Invasions of Tibet
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...