A mesocarnivore is an animal whose diet consists of 50–70% meat with the balance consisting of non-vertebrate foods which may include

insects Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of j ...

fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...

s, other plant material and any food that is available to them. Mesocarnivores are from a large family group of mammalian carnivores and vary from small to medium sized, which are less than fifteen kilograms. Mesocarnivores are seen today among the Canidae (coyotes, foxes),

Viverridae Viverridae is a family (biology), family of small to medium-sized, feliform mammals. The viverrids () comprise 33 species placed in 14 genera. This family was named and first described by John Edward Gray in 1821. Viverrids occur all over Africa, ...

(civets),

Mustelidae The Mustelidae (; from Latin ''mustela'', weasel) are a family of carnivorous mammals, including weasels, badgers, otters, ferrets, martens, minks and wolverines, among others. Mustelids () are a diverse group and form the largest family in th ...

(martens,

tayra The tayra (''Eira barbara'') is an omnivorous animal from the weasel family, native to the Americas. It is the only species in the genus ''Eira''. Tayras are also known as the ''tolomuco'' or ''perico ligero'' in Central America, ''motete'' in ...

), Procyonidae (ringtail, raccoon),

Mephitidae Mephitidae is a family of mammals comprising the skunks and stink badgers. They are noted for the great development of their anal scent glands, which they use to deter predators. Skunks were formerly classified as a subfamily of the Mustelidae ...

(skunks), and

Herpestidae A mongoose is a small terrestrial carnivorous mammal belonging to the family Herpestidae. This family is currently split into two subfamilies, the Herpestinae and the Mungotinae. The Herpestinae comprises 23 living species that are native to so ...

(some mongooses). The red fox is also the most common of the mesocarnivores in Europe and has a high population density in the areas they reside. In North America some mesocarnivores, such as otters, lynx, or marten, are in danger of being over hunted for their pelts.Ray, Justina C. Mesocarnivores of Northeastern North America: Status and Conservation Issues. WCS Working Papers No. 15, June 2000. Available for download from http://www.wcs.org/science/ This has led to efforts to help protect and conserve the mesocarnivores in the area which have been largely successful thus far. These animals play an essential role in the function and system of the ecosystem, since the elimination of

apex predators An apex predator, also known as a top predator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without natural predators of its own. Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the highest trophic lev ...

. The American Institute of Biological Sciences states that due to the fact that mesocarnivores are smaller than large carnivore, they are more abundant, and therefore have a diversity of mesocarnivore species.Gary W. Roemer, Matthew E. Gompper, Blaire Van Valkenburgh, "The Ecological Role of the Mammalian Mesocarnivore", ''BioScience'', Volume 59, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 165–173, https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.2.9 Due to their smaller size, mesocarnivores play a part in the ecosystem of dispersing seeds in open spaces, as well as driving community structure. Mesocarnivores are also very diverse in comparison to larger carnivores in their behaviour and

ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overl ...

, from being reclusive to highly social. Their diversity and small size allows them to thrive in a range of habitats than larger carnivores are able to. The population of these smaller carnivores also increases when the presence of a larger carnivore decline. This is known as the 'mesocarnivore release.' According to the

National Park Service The National Park Service (NPS) is an agency of the United States federal government within the U.S. Department of the Interior that manages all national parks, most national monuments, and other natural, historical, and recreational propert ...

, "Mesocarnivore release is defined as the expansion in range and/or abundance of a smaller predator following the reduction or removal of a larger predator." One impact of this is that these mesocarnivores can act as scavengers cleaning up dead animal carcasses discarded by humans in

urban areas An urban area, built-up area or urban agglomeration is a human settlement with a high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, ...

. Mesocarnivores' habitat have shifted and changed, due to

urbanisation Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly the ...

, leading to habitat fragmentation and disturbance, resulting in habitat loss for animals.

Evolution

Mesocarnivores, as a part of the mammalian carnivore family, play a large role in the ecosystem, due to their prey-drive effects and impact on its functionality and structure. They are an important part of the ecological function, as their small to medium size allows them to disperse seeds that hypercarnivores cannot. Mesocarnivores transport seeds in open spaces, as far as one kilometre and disperse seeds within 600 to 750 metres of each other. They can influence other native carnivores by

predation Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...

and

competition Competition is a rivalry where two or more parties strive for a common goal which cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is a zero-sum game). Competition can arise between entities such as organisms, indiv ...

in the ecosystem, and can lead to a reduction or possible

extinction Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...

of prey species and affect geographical distribution, changing the structure of the ecosystem. Mesocarnivores also serve other ecological roles such as their position in the food web and disease

mitigation Mitigation is the reduction of something harmful or the reduction of its harmful effects. It may refer to measures taken to reduce the harmful effects of hazards that remain ''in potentia'', or to manage harmful incidents that have already occur ...

. Mesocarnivores' habitats are rapidly changing due to

, habitat fragmentation and

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...

, which is a threat to survival for these animals, due to habitat loss and can cause a decrease in species. Some mesocarnivores have adapted very quickly to the constantly changing habitat conditions, compared to other mesocarnivores, for example the coyote (''Canis latrans'') in Northeast North America. Many carnivores have different locomotor movements and can easily adapt to a range of habitats and source various foods.

Characteristics

Behaviour and Activity

Some mesocarnivores including the

masked palm civet The masked palm civet (''Paguma larvata''), also called the gem-faced civet, is a palm civet species native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List since 2008 as it occurs in many p ...

hog badger Hog badgers are three species of mustelid in the genus ''Arctonyx''. They represent one of the two genera in the subfamily Melinae, alongside the true badgers (genus '' Meles''). Taxonomy ''Arctonyx'' was formerly considered a monotypic genus ...

and

leopard cat The leopard cat (''Prionailurus bengalensis'') is a small wild cat native to continental South, Southeast, and East Asia. Since 2002 it has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List as it is widely distributed although threatened by hab ...

activity patterns peaked during the night. Mesocarnivores activity levels change within different seasons and climates. Different temperatures and the rate of plant growth may affect the activity patterns in mesocarnivores. Masked palm civets in China do not appear often in the winter months (December to February) and are not as active. Mesocarnivores’ behaviour and characteristics are individual to their species. For example,

coyotes The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological nich ...

are pack animals and form strong family relations. The way mesocarnivores communicate with each other is through their behaviours that are able to organise

mating system A mating system is a way in which a group is structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The precise meaning depends upon the context. With respect to animals, the term describes which males and females mate under which circumstances. Recognised ...

s, distinguish parental care and other behaviours. Carnivores also use their senses to communicate with other animals and in the pack, especially their olfactory senses. Mesocarnivores perform a wide range of different movements. Different species of mesocarnivores can achieve different types of locomotor movements. For example, otters (Lutrinae) are specialised in swimming in water, however find it difficult to move on land. Other carnivores can improve their locomotor movements by behaviour modifications, for example, the African lion and gray wolf demonstrate group hunting behaviour where it allows them to run and hunt prey as a pack, that can not be done individually. Carnivores with limbs that are adapted for running may run, gallop or pace to go at a fast pace and cover long distances. These carnivorous mammals use their gait which is dependent on their species and size. The structure of a carnivore is designed to catch prey and kill it.

Feeding behaviours

Mesocarnivores are found to be nocturnal and are hunting for

prey Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill ...

when they are most active during the nighttime. Mesocarnivores’ feeding behaviours mainly consist of prey availability. They feed on small mammals which include a range of different mice and

squirrels Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Squ ...

, such as the northern grasshopper mice, ord’s kangaroo rat and thirteen-lined ground squirrels. Some other examples of mesocarnivores’ prey are the blacktailed jackrabbit and the desert cottontail. Large and small mammals are considered as prey to these mesocarnivores, as well as different

herbivores A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...

, depending on what food is most readily available to these animals. Without

, there is a decreased level of inter-specific competition in the food chain between mesocarnivores, allowing them to increase their scavenging options for different food. As mesocarnivores are scavengers, they will eat any food that is accessible to them. For example, the

yellow-throated marten The yellow-throated marten (''Martes flavigula'') is a marten species native to Asia. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List due to its wide distribution, evidently relatively stable population, occurrence in a number of protected are ...

and

Siberian weasel The Siberian weasel or kolonok (''Mustela sibirica''), is a medium-sized weasel native to Asia, where it is widely distributed and inhabits various forest habitats and open areas. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Desc ...

change their feeding behaviours in winter when limited fruits are available and convert to small mammal prey. Mesocarnivores are closely related to other mammals in regards to

and

intraguild predation Intraguild predation, or IGP, is the killing and sometimes eating of a potential competitor of a different species. This interaction represents a combination of predation and competition, because both species rely on the same prey resources and a ...

. Interspecific competition is a vital part of the ecological species and community structure, as a result can lead to " exploitation competition" and " interference competition" with other species.

Dentition

Mesocarnivore cheek teeth are heterodont and their different shapes reflect distinct functions. Incisors and canines are used to apprehend food and kill prey, pointed premolars pierce and hold prey, and molars are involved in both slicing and crushing functions. The slicing function of the molars is produced by

occlusion Occlusion may refer to: Health and fitness * Occlusion (dentistry), the manner in which the upper and lower teeth come together when the mouth is closed * Occlusion miliaria, a skin condition * Occlusive dressing, an air- and water-tight trauma ...

between the

carnassial Carnassials are paired upper and lower teeth modified in such a way as to allow enlarged and often self-sharpening edges to pass by each other in a shearing manner. This adaptation is found in carnivorans, where the carnassials are the modified f ...

s, the lower first molar, and the upper fourth premolar. Mesocarnivores are first represented by the Miacidae. They are best represented by '' Prohesperocyon'', with three

incisor Incisors (from Latin ''incidere'', "to cut") are the front teeth present in most mammals. They are located in the premaxilla above and on the mandible below. Humans have a total of eight (two on each side, top and bottom). Opossums have 18, wher ...

s, one canine tooth, four premolars above. The jaw has three molars below, and two molars above on each side.

Taxonomy

There are many animals in the wild that are considered as mesocarnivores, such as species of lynx, bobcat, American marten, fisher, river otter,

American mink The American mink (''Neogale vison'') is a semiaquatic species of mustelid native to North America, though human intervention has expanded its range to many parts of Europe, Asia and South America. Because of range expansion, the American mink i ...

, coyote, red fox,

gray fox The gray fox (''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''), or grey fox, is an omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, widespread throughout North America and Central America. This species and its only congener, the diminutive island fox (''Urocyon littor ...

raccoon The raccoon ( or , ''Procyon lotor''), sometimes called the common raccoon to distinguish it from other species, is a mammal native to North America. It is the largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of , and a body weight of ...

, striped skunk,

weasels Weasels are mammals of the genus ''Mustela'' of the family Mustelidae. The genus ''Mustela'' includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender b ...

. Individual species' diets may vary, depending on the season and what food can be sourced. Mesocarnivore mammals have a large role in the ecosystem that impacts ecological community and system in the environment.

Example species

Coyote (''Canis latrans'')

The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a native species to North America. They can live up to a lifespan of fourteen years, with their size ranging from 81-94 cm (32 to 37 inch) head to body, and weigh 9-23 kg (20-50 pounds). Coyotes’ diet mostly consists of

mammals Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur o ...

, fruits, birds, grass and

. They are also hunters and will eat anything of readily available prey including rabbits,

fish Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of ...

lamb Lamb or The Lamb may refer to: * A young sheep * Lamb and mutton, the meat of sheep Arts and media Film, television, and theatre * ''The Lamb'' (1915 film), a silent film starring Douglas Fairbanks Sr. in his screen debut * ''The Lamb'' (1918 ...

. The coyotes in the wild enjoy intense smells of adventure and prey, as well as having an excellent sense of vision. They are pack animals and hunt prey and food in a pack, especially in the fall and winter.

River otter (''Lontra canadensis'')

The river otter is one of North America’s native animals. They have an average lifespan of 8 to 9 years, with a body length ranging from 56-80 cm (22-32 inch) head to body and weigh 5-13 kg (11-30 pounds). The river otter’s habitat is in water and on land. They create a burrow near the water as their den and easily adapt to other aquatic habitats. They hunt during the night, and find food that is readily available to them. River otters have great swimming abilities and stay active during winter.

Raccoon (''Procyon lotor'')

There are several

species which are also known as ringtail, all originated from the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...

. Their physical characteristics include short limbs, a pointed snout and small upright ears, with a body length of 75-90 cm (30-35 inch) long.

Raccoons The raccoon ( or , ''Procyon lotor''), sometimes called the common raccoon to distinguish it from other species, is a mammal native to North America. It is the largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of , and a body weight of . ...

weight varies from 10-20 kg (22-44 pounds) and have a furry coat that resembles black, grey and brown shades. These mesocarnivores catch majority of their food in water, including crayfish, frogs and other marine animals, as well as feeding on rodents and other plant material. Some species of the raccoon include the Barbados raccoon (''P. gloveralleni''), Tres Marías raccoon (''P. insularis''),

Bahaman raccoon The Bahamian raccoon (''Procyon lotor maynardi''), also called Bahama raccoon or Bahamas raccoon, is a subspecies of the common raccoon endemic on the New Providence Island in the Bahamas. The binomial name, ''maynardi'', comes from Charles John ...

(''P. maynardi''), Guadeloupe raccoon (''P. minor'') and Cozumel raccoon (''P. pygmaeus'').

Mongoose (Herpestidae)

The

mongoose A mongoose is a small terrestrial carnivorous mammal belonging to the family Herpestidae. This family is currently split into two subfamilies, the Herpestinae and the Mungotinae. The Herpestinae comprises 23 living species that are native to so ...

is a species of mesocarnivores which are mainly located in

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

, southern Asia and

southern Europe Southern Europe is the southern region of Europe. It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is essentially marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of Southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Alba ...

. They are known for their predatory attacks on snakes. The meerkat is known as a part of the mongoose family of mesocarnivores. Mongooses are animals with physical features including short legs, pointed snout, minute ears and a long tail. Their fur colour resembles grey to brown shades and have specks of lighter grey. The mongoose ranges in size from the smallest, dwarf mongoose, 17-24 cm (7-10 inch) in body length and the largest mongoose of 48-74 cm (19-29 inch) in body length. Dwarf mongoose have a tail approximately 15-20 cm (6-8 inch) long, and larger mongooses have a longer tail up to 40 cm (19 inch) long.

Red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')

The red fox is a species part of the fox family, which is located in

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...

and North America. Its body length is usually approximately 90-105 cm (35-41 inch) long, 30-40 cm (12-16 inch) of its body length being its tail, and is a height of 40 cm (16 inch). Many adult red foxes weigh 5-7 kg (11-15 pounds) and can reach up to 14 kg (31 pounds). The physical characteristics of the red fox have a soft thin undercoat and long hairs that consists of orange, red, brown shades. The red fox has black ears and legs, with white on the tip of its tail and on its chest. Red foxes live in a range of habitats which include grasslands,

forests A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...

, mountains and

deserts A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About on ...

Striped skunk (''Mephitis mephitis'')

The striped skunk is a mesocarnivore species that are located in the

. Their physical characteristics in size range from 20-25 cm (8-10 inch) from head to body, with a 12-38 cm (5-15 inch) tail. Striped skunks weigh between 200g-6 kg (7 ounces-14 pounds) and have an average lifespan of 3 years. They are easily adaptable animals that live in

woodlands Woodlands may back refer to: * Woodland, a low-density forest Geography Australia * Woodlands, New South Wales * Woodlands, Ashgrove, Queensland, a heritage-listed house associated with John Henry Pepper * Woodlands, Marburg, Queensland, a her ...

and grasslands. These mesocarnivores can be easily recognized by their black fur with a thin white stripe from their nose to their forehead. There are two thick white stripes that run along the sides of their back and continue to their furry, bushy tail with grey shades. Striped skunks are known for their predatory skunk spray, where oily liquid is released by its glands, resulting in a foul odor to their predators.

Marten (''Martes'' spp.)

The marten is a mesocarnivore species which are found in

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

and

. There are many different species of the marten. Their physical characteristics include a variation in size and colour from yellow to shades of dark brown, short legs, small, round ears and slender bodies, with thick coats. Their body length ranges from 35-65 cm (14-26 inch), with a long tail of 3-7 cm (9-18 inch), depending on the species and weigh 1-2kg (2-4 pounds). Some species of the marten include American marten,

pine marten The European pine marten (''Martes martes''), also known as the pine marten, is a mustelid native to and widespread in most of Europe, Asia Minor, the Caucasus and parts of Iran, Iraq and Syria. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. ...

stone marten The beech marten (''Martes foina''), also known as the stone marten, house marten or white breasted marten, is a species of marten native to much of Europe and Central Asia, though it has established a feral population in North America. It is li ...

, and nilgiri marten.
File:California Death Valley Coyote.jpg, Coyote (canis latrans) File:River Otter (Lontra canadensis).jpg, River Otter (Lontra canadensis) File:Waschbär Procyon lotor Racoon.ogv, Raccoon (Procyon lotor) File:Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo).jpg, Mongoose (Herpestidae) File:Red fox image.jpg, Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) File:Striped Skunk (cropped).jpg, Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) File:Beech marten(js)01.jpg, Stone marten (Martes foina)

References

{{feeding Carnivory