The Megatons to Megawatts Program, also called the United States-Russia Highly Enriched Uranium Purchase Agreement, was an agreement between Russia and the United States. The official name of the program is the "Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the United States of America Concerning the Disposition of Highly-Enriched Uranium Extracted from Nuclear Weapons", dated February 18, 1993. Under this Agreement, Russia agreed to supply the United States with low-enriched uranium (LEU) obtained from high- enriched uranium (HEU) found to be in excess of Russian defense purposes. The United States agreed to purchase the low-enriched uranium fuel.
The original proposal for this program was made by Thomas Neff, a physicist at
MIT
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, and is one of the m ...
, in an October 24, 1991 Op-Ed in '' The New York Times''. On August 28, 1992, in Moscow, U.S. and Russian negotiators initialed the 20-year agreement and President George H. W. Bush announced the agreement on August 31, 1992. In 1993, the agreement was signed and initiated by President Bill Clinton and the commercial implementing contract was then signed by both parties. The program was successfully completed in December 2013.
Terms of the program
Under this Agreement, the United States and Russia agreed to commercially implement a 20-year program to convert 500 metric tons of HEU (uranium-235 enriched to 90 percent) taken from Soviet-era warheads, into LEU (less than 5 percent uranium-235). The terms of the agreement required that it be implemented on commercial terms without government funds. The agreement named the
Department of Energy A Ministry of Energy or Department of Energy is a government department in some countries that typically oversees the production of fuel and electricity; in the United States, however, it manages nuclear weapons development and conducts energy-relat ...
as the executive agent for the US side. The DOE appointed the newly privatized
United States Enrichment Corporation
Centrus Energy Corp. (formerly USEC Inc.) is an American company that supplies nuclear fuel for use in nuclear power plants and works to develop and deploy advanced centrifuge technology to produce enriched uranium for commercial and government use ...
(USEC) as the commercial agent, its executive program contractor. The Russian Federation designated
Techsnabexport
Techsnabexport (russian: АО "Техснабэкспорт"), internationally known as TENEX, is an overseas trading company that is owned by Russian state-owned company Rosatom. Techsnabexport is an exporter of enriched uranium and a supplier o ...
(TENEX), a commercial subsidiary of its
Ministry for Atomic Energy
Ministry for Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation and Federal Agency on Atomic Energy (or Rosatom), were a Russian federal executive body in 1992–2008 (as Federal Ministry in 1992–2004 and as Federal Agency in 2004–2008).
The Min ...
(Minatom), as the agent to implement the program on commercial terms. On January 14, 1994, the commercial contract between USEC and TENEX (HEU-LEU Contract) was signed. The terms also required that the HEU be converted by dilution (downblending) to LEU in Russian nuclear facilities. USEC would then purchase the low-enriched fuel and transport it to its facilities in the US. The first shipment of LEU took place in May 1995.
The value of the process is in two components: the LEU Feed (feed component of natural uranium) and the work involved in the conversion process, measured as
separative work units
Separative work – the amount of separation done by an enrichment process – is a function of the concentrations of the feedstock, the enriched output, and the depleted tailings; and is expressed in units which are so calculated as to be proport ...
(SWU). Both have separate commercial values. Early disagreements on interpretations of the terms of the governmental and commercial agreements on this issue led to controversy and some delays. Although each shipment contains LEU, the commercial nature of the global uranium market defines the uranium and the enrichment components as separate commercial values and costs. The solution reached was for USEC to continue payments for the SWU component it purchased and also to transfer the equivalent of the LEU feed component to the Russian side. In March 1999, Minatom and the US Department of Energy signed the Agreement Concerning the Transfer of Source Material to the Russian Federation (the Transfer Agreement), and at the same time TENEX signed a Contract with a Group of Western Companies (Cameco, Canada; Cogema, France; Nukem, Germany/US) regarding the purchase of the LEU Feed. As years passed, numerous commercial contract terms were renegotiated and revised to accommodate mutual interests.
Summary of program
The Megatons to Megawatts program was initiated in 1993 and completed on schedule in December 2013. A total of 500 tonnes of Russian warhead grade HEU (equivalent to 20,008 nuclear warheads) were converted in Russia to nearly 15,000 tonnes tons of LEU (low enriched uranium) and sold to the US for use as fuel in American nuclear power plants. The program was the largest and most successful nuclear non- proliferation program to date. The first
nuclear power plant
A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces ele ...
to receive low-enriched fuel containing uranium under this program was the
Cooper Nuclear Station
Cooper Nuclear Station (CNS) is a boiling water reactor (BWR) type nuclear power plant located on a site near Brownville, Nebraska between Missouri River mile markers 532.9 and 532.5, on Nebraska's border with Missouri. It is the largest si ...
in 1998. During the 20-year Megatons to Megawatts program, as much as 10 percent of the electricity produced in the United States was generated by fuel fabricated using LEU from Russian HEU.
During this period, on a comparatively modest basis, the US government has also been converting some of its excess nuclear warhead HEU into power plant fuel. Efforts have also been undertaken to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of converting warhead plutonium into fuel to augment nuclear fuel for US power plants.
Nuclear industry sources forecasted high demand trends that would require finding other uranium supply sources after the completion of the Megatons to Megawatts agreement. In 2011, TENEX and USEC signed a long-term contract (Transitional Supply Agreement – TSA) for the provision of enrichment services to the United States that could see annual deliveries after 2015 reaching a level of around half the annual supply volume under the HEU Deal.TENEX Celebrates 50 Years in the Nuclear Energy Business TENEX website. 25.07. No plans have been announced for new initiatives similar to the Megatons to Megawatts program.
Peak uranium
Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground. Over 50 thousand tons of uranium were produced in 2019. Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia were the top three uranium producers, respectively, and together account f ...
*
Swords to ploughshares
Swords to ploughshares (or plowshares) is a concept in which military weapons or technologies are converted for peaceful civilian applications.
The phrase originates from the Book of Isaiah chapter 2:
The ''ploughshare'' ( ''’êṯ'', al ...
* A Grand Uranium Bargain " Thomas L. Neff (Op-Ed), New York Times, October 24, 1991.
* "From Soviet Warheads to U.S. Reactor Fuel," William J. Broad, September 6, 1992.