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Max Ferdinand Scheler (; 22 August 1874 – 19 May 1928) was a German philosopher known for his work in phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical anthropology. Considered in his lifetime one of the most prominent German philosophers,Davis, Zachary and Anthony Steinbock, "Max Scheler", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = . Scheler developed the
philosophical method In its most common sense, philosophical methodology is the field of inquiry studying the methods used to do philosophy. But the term can also refer to the methods themselves. It may be understood in a wide sense as the general study of principles ...
of Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology. Given that school's utopian ambitions of re-founding all of human knowledge, Scheler was nicknamed the "Adam of the philosophical paradise" by José Ortega y Gasset. After Scheler's death in 1928, Martin Heidegger affirmed, with Ortega y Gasset, that all philosophers of the century were indebted to Scheler and praised him as "the strongest philosophical force in modern Germany, nay, in contemporary Europe and in
contemporary philosophy Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy. The phrase "co ...
as such." Scheler was an important influence on the theology of
Pope John Paul II Pope John Paul II ( la, Ioannes Paulus II; it, Giovanni Paolo II; pl, Jan Paweł II; born Karol Józef Wojtyła ; 18 May 19202 April 2005) was the head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 1978 until his ...
, who wrote his 1954 doctoral thesis on "An Evaluation of the Possibility of Constructing a
Christian Ethics Christian ethics, also known as moral theology, is a multi-faceted ethical system: it is a virtue ethic which focuses on building moral character, and a deontological ethic which emphasizes duty. It also incorporates natural law ethics, whic ...
on the Basis of the System of Max Scheler", and later wrote many articles on Scheler's philosophy. Thanks to John Paul II as well as to Scheler's influence on his student Edith Stein, Scheler has exercised a notable influence on Catholic thought to this day.


Life and career


Childhood

Max Scheler was born in Munich, Germany, on 22 August 1874, to a well-respected orthodox Jewish family. He had "a rather typical late nineteenth century upbringing in a Jewish household bent on assimilation and agnosticism." As an adolescent he turned to
Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
, and Catholic thinkers such as
St. Augustine Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Afri ...
and
Pascal Pascal, Pascal's or PASCAL may refer to: People and fictional characters * Pascal (given name), including a list of people with the name * Pascal (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name ** Blaise Pascal, Frenc ...
would significantly influence his philosophical positions.


Student years

Scheler began his university studies as a medical student at the
University of Munich The Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (simply University of Munich or LMU; german: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München) is a public research university in Munich, Germany. It is Germany's sixth-oldest university in continuous operati ...
; he then transferred to the
University of Berlin Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (german: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a German public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin. It was established by Frederick William III on the initiative o ...
where he abandoned medicine in favor of philosophy and
sociology Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation and ...
, studying under
Wilhelm Dilthey Wilhelm Dilthey (; ; 19 November 1833 – 1 October 1911) was a German historian, psychologist, sociologist, and hermeneutic philosopher, who held G. W. F. Hegel's Chair in Philosophy at the University of Berlin. As a polymathic philosopher, ...
, Carl Stumpf and
Georg Simmel Georg Simmel (; ; 1 March 1858 – 26 September 1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic. Simmel was influential in the field of sociology. Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approach l ...
. He moved to the University of Jena in 1896 where he studied under
Rudolf Eucken Rudolf Christoph Eucken (; 5 January 184615 September 1926) was a German philosopher. He received the 1908 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his earnest search for truth, his penetrating power of thought, his wide range of vision, and t ...
, at that time a very popular philosopher who went on to win the Nobel Prize for literature in 1908. (Eucken corresponded with
William James William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher, historian, and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the la ...
, a noted proponent of philosophical pragmatism, and throughout his life, Scheler entertained a strong interest in pragmatism.) It was at Jena that Scheler completed his doctorate and his '' habilitation'' and began his professional life as a teacher. His doctoral thesis, completed in 1897, was entitled ''Beiträge zur Feststellung der Beziehungen zwischen den logischen und ethischen Prinzipien'' (Contribution to establishing the relationships between logical and ethical principles). In 1898 he made a trip to Heidelberg and met Max Weber, who also had a significant impact on his thought. He earned his ''habilitation'' in 1899 with a thesis entitled ''Die transzendentale und die psychologische Methode'' (The transcendental and the psychological method) directed by Eucken. He became a lecturer (''
Privatdozent ''Privatdozent'' (for men) or ''Privatdozentin'' (for women), abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz., is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualific ...
'') at the University of Jena in 1901.


First period (Jena, Munich, Gottingen and World War I)

Scheler taught at Jena from 1901 until 1906, then returned to the University of Munich where he taught from 1907 to 1910. At this time his study of Edmund Husserl's phenomenology deepened. Scheler had first met Husserl at Halle in 1901. At Munich, Husserl's own teacher
Franz Brentano Franz Clemens Honoratus Hermann Josef Brentano (; ; 16 January 1838 – 17 March 1917) was an influential German philosopher, psychologist, and former Catholic priest (withdrawn in 1873 due to the definition of papal infallibility in matters of ...
was still lecturing, and Scheler joined the Phenomenological Circle in Munich, centred around M. Beck, Th. Conrad, J. Daubert, M. Geiger,
Dietrich von Hildebrand Dietrich Richard Alfred von Hildebrand (12 October 1889 – 26 January 1977) was a German Roman Catholic philosopher and religious writer. Hildebrand was called "the twentieth-century Doctor of the Church" by Pope Pius XII. He was a leadin ...
,
Theodor Lipps Theodor Lipps (; 28 July 1851 – 17 October 1914) was a German philosopher, famed for his theory regarding aesthetics, creating the framework for the concept of ''Einfühlung'' (empathy)'','' defined as, "projecting oneself onto the object of ...
, and Alexander Pfänder. Scheler was never a direct student of Husserl's, and in fact, their relationship was somewhat strained. In later years Scheler was rather critical of Husserl's ''Logical Investigations'' (1900/01) and ''Ideas I'' (1913), and he also was to harbor reservations about ''
Being and Time ''Being and Time'' (german: Sein und Zeit) is the 1927 ''magnum opus'' of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and a key document of existentialism. ''Being and Time'' had a notable impact on subsequent philosophy, literary theory and many other f ...
'' by Martin Heidegger. At Munich Scheler was caught up in the conflict between the predominantly Catholic university and the local Socialist media, which led to the loss of his Munich teaching position in 1910. He then briefly lectured at the Philosophical Society of Göttingen, where he made and renewed acquaintances with Theodore Conrad,
Hedwig Conrad-Martius Hedwig Conrad-Martius ( Berlin, 27 February 1888 – Starnberg, 15 February 1966) was a German phenomenologist who became a Christian mystic. Life and works She initially considered a literary career, but later became interested in philosophy ...
(an ontologist and Conrad's wife), Moritz Geiger, Jean Hering,
Roman Ingarden Roman Witold Ingarden (; February 5, 1893 – June 14, 1970) was a Polish philosopher who worked in aesthetics, ontology, and phenomenology. Before World War II, Ingarden published his works mainly in the German language. During the war, he s ...
, Dietrich von Hildebrand, Husserl,
Alexandre Koyré Alexandre Koyré (, ; born Alexandr Vladimirovich (or Volfovich) Koyra (russian: Александр Владимирович (Вольфович) Койра); 29 August 1892 – 28 April 1964), also anglicized as Alexander Koyre, was a Fren ...
, and
Adolf Reinach Adolf Bernhard Philipp Reinach (23 December 1883 – 16 November 1917) was a German philosopher, phenomenologist (from the Munich phenomenology school) and law theorist. Life and work Adolf Reinach was born into a prominent Jewish family in M ...
. Edith Stein was one of his students, impressed by him "way beyond philosophy". In 1911, he moved to Berlin as an unattached writer and grew close to
Walther Rathenau Walther Rathenau (29 September 1867 – 24 June 1922) was a German industrialist, writer and liberal politician. During the First World War of 1914–1918 he was involved in the organization of the German war economy. After the war, Rathenau s ...
and
Werner Sombart Werner Sombart (; ; 19 January 1863 – 18 May 1941) was a German economist and sociologist, the head of the "Youngest Historical School" and one of the leading Continental European social scientists during the first quarter of the 20th century. ...
. When his first marriage, to Amalie von Dewitz, ended in divorce, Scheler married Märit Furtwängler in 1912, who was the sister of the noted conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler. Scheler's son by his first wife, Wolf Scheler, became troublesome after the divorce, often stealing from his father, and in 1923, after Wolf had tried to force him to pay for a prostitute, Scheler sent him to his former student
Kurt Schneider Kurt Schneider (7 January 1887 – 27 October 1967) was a German psychiatrist known largely for his writing on the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia, as well as personality disorders then known as psychopathic personalities. B ...
, a psychiatrist, for diagnosis. Schneider diagnosed Wolf as not being mentally ill, but a
psychopath Psychopathy, sometimes considered synonymous with sociopathy, is characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, disinhibited, and egotistical traits. Different conceptions of psychopathy have been u ...
, using two diagnostic categories ( Gemütlos and Haltlos) essentially equivalent to today's "
antisocial personality disorder Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD or infrequently APD) is a personality disorder characterized by a long-term pattern of disregard of, or violation of, the rights of others as well as a difficulty sustaining long-term relationships. Lack ...
". Along with other Munich phenomenologists such as Reinach, Pfänder and Geiger, Scheler co-founded in 1912 the famous ''
Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung Munich phenomenology (also Munich phenomenological school) is the philosophical orientation of a group of philosophers and psychologists that studied and worked in Munich at the turn of the twentieth century. Their views are grouped under the names ...
'', with Husserl as main editor. Scheler's first major work, published in 1913, was strongly influenced by phenomenology: ''Zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegefühle und von Liebe und Hass'' (English translation: ''The Nature of Sympathy, 1954). During World War I (1914–1918), Scheler was initially drafted, but later discharged because of
astigmia Astigmatism is a type of refractive error due to rotational asymmetry in the eye's refractive power. This results in distorted or blurred vision at any distance. Other symptoms can include eyestrain, headaches, and trouble driving at night ...
of the eyes. He was passionately devoted to the defence of both the war and Germany's cause during the conflict.


Second period (Cologne)

In 1919 Scheler became
professor Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an Academy, academic rank at university, universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin as a "person who pr ...
of philosophy and sociology at the University of Cologne. He stayed there until 1928. After 1921 he disassociated himself in public from Catholic teaching and even from the
Judeo-Christian The term Judeo-Christian is used to group Christianity and Judaism together, either in reference to Christianity's derivation from Judaism, Christianity's borrowing of Jewish Scripture to constitute the "Old Testament" of the Christian Bible, o ...
God, committing himself to pantheism and philosophical anthropology. His thinking increasingly took on a political character, and he became the only scholar of rank in the
Weimar Republic The Weimar Republic (german: link=no, Weimarer Republik ), officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is al ...
to warn in public speeches against the dangers both of
National Socialism Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Naz ...
and Communism. He met the Russian existentialist philosopher
Nikolai Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (; russian: Никола́й Алекса́ндрович Бердя́ев;  – 24 March 1948) was a Russian philosopher, theologian, and Christian existentialist who emphasized the existential spiritual signi ...
in Berlin in 1923. In 1927 he delivered talks in Berlin on 'Politics and Morals' and 'The Idea of Eternal Peace and Pacifism'. He argued that
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private pr ...
is not so much an economic system as a calculating, globally growing ' mind-set'. While economic capitalism may have had some roots in ascetic
Calvinism Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the Christian theology, theological tradition and forms of Christianity, Christ ...
(as argued by
Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas prof ...
), its mind-set, however, has its origin in modern, subconscious ''
angst Angst is fear or anxiety (''anguish'' is its Latinate equivalent, and the words ''anxious'' and ''anxiety'' are of similar origin). The dictionary definition for angst is a feeling of anxiety, apprehension, or insecurity. Etymology The word ...
'' as expressed in increasing needs for financial and other securities, for protection and personal safeguards as well as for rational manageability of all things, which ultimately subordinates the value of the individual person. Scheler called instead for a new era of culture and values, which he called 'The World-Era of Adjustment'. Scheler also advocated an international university to be set up in
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
and was at that time supportive of programs such as '
continuing education Continuing education (similar to further education in the United Kingdom and Ireland) is an all-encompassing term within a broad list of post-secondary learning activities and programs. The term is used mainly in the United States and Canada. ...
' and of what he seems to have been the first to call a '
United States of Europe The United States of Europe (USE), the European State, the European Federation and Federal Europe, is the hypothetical scenario of the European integration leading to formation of a sovereign superstate (similar to the United States of Americ ...
'. He deplored the gap existing in Germany between
power Power most often refers to: * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events ** Abusive power Power may ...
and mind, a gap which he regarded as the very source of an impending dictatorship and the greatest obstacle to the establishment of German democracy. Five years after his death, the Nazi dictatorship (1933–1945) suppressed Scheler's work. Towards the end of his life many invitations were extended to him from China, India, Japan, and Russia. On the advice of his physician, he cancelled reservations on the Star Line to the United States. In 1927 at a conference in Darmstadt, near Frankfurt, arranged by the new-age philosopher
Hermann Keyserling Hermann Alexander Graf von Keyserling ( – 26 April 1946) was a Baltic German philosopher from the Keyserlingk family. His grandfather, Alexander von Keyserling, was a notable geologist of Imperial Russia. Life Keyserling was born to a wealthy ...
, Scheler delivered a lengthy lecture entitled 'Man's Particular Place' (''Die Sonderstellung des Menschen''), published later in much abbreviated form as ''Die Stellung des Menschen im Kosmos'' iterally: 'Man's Position in the Cosmos' His well-known oratorical style and delivery captivated his audience for about four hours. Early in 1928, he accepted a new position at the University of Frankfurt. There he looked forward to conversing with Ernst Cassirer, Karl Mannheim,
Rudolph Otto Rudolph or Rudolf may refer to: People * Rudolph (name), the given name including a list of people with the name Religious figures * Rudolf of Fulda (died 865), 9th century monk, writer and theologian * Rudolf von Habsburg-Lothringen (1788� ...
and Richard Wilhelm, all of whom are occasionally referred to in his writings. Scheler had developed the habit of smoking between sixty and eighty cigarettes a day which contributed to a series of heart attacks throughout 1928, forcing him to cancel any travel plans. On May 19, 1928, he died in a Frankfurt hospital due to complications from a severe heart attack. His plans to publish a major work in Anthropology in 1929 were curtailed by his premature death.


Philosophical contributions


Love and the "phenomenological attitude"

When the editors of ''
Geisteswissenschaften ''Geisteswissenschaften'' (, "sciences of mind", "spirit science") is a set of human sciences such as philosophy, history, philology, musicology, linguistics, theater studies, literary studies, media studies, and sometimes even theology and juri ...
'' invited Scheler (about 1913/14) to write on the then developing philosophical method of phenomenology, Scheler indicated that the phenomenological movement was not defined by universally accepted theses but by a "common bearing and attitude toward philosophical problems."Max Scheler, ''Selected Philosophical Essays'', "Phenomenology and the Theory of Cognition," trans. David Lachterman (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973), 137. Scheler disagrees with Husserl that phenomenology is a method of strict phenomenological reduction, but rather "an attitude of spiritual seeing...something which otherwise remains hidden...." Calling phenomenology a method fails to take seriously the phenomenological domain of original experience: the givenness of phenomenological facts (essences or values as ''a priori'') "before they have been fixed by logic," and prior to assuming a set of criteria or symbols, as is the case in the natural and human sciences as well as other (modern) philosophies which tailor their methods to those of the sciences. Rather, that which is given in phenomenology "is given only in the seeing and experiencing act itself." The essences are never given to an 'outside' observer without direct contact with a specific domain of experience. Phenomenology is an engagement of phenomena, while simultaneously a waiting for its self-givenness; it is not a methodical procedure of observation as if its object is stationary. Thus, the particular attitude (''Geisteshaltung'', lit. "disposition of the spirit" or "spiritual posture") of the philosopher is crucial for the disclosure, or seeing, of phenomenological facts. This attitude is fundamentally a moral one, where the strength of philosophical inquiry rests upon the basis of love. Scheler describes the essence of philosophical thinking as "''a love-determined movement of the inmost personal self of a finite being toward participation in the essential reality of all possibles''." The movement and act of love is important for philosophy for two reasons: (1) If philosophy, as Scheler describes it, hearkening back to the Platonic tradition, is a participation in a "primal essence of all essences" (''Urwesen''), it follows that for this participation to be achieved one must incorporate within oneself the content or essential characteristic of the primal essence. For Scheler, such a primal essence is most characterized according to love, thus the way to achieve the most direct and intimate participation is precisely to share in the movement of love. It is important to mention, however, that this primal essence is not an objectifiable entity whose possible correlate is knowledge; thus, even if philosophy is always concerned with knowing, as Scheler would concur, nevertheless, reason itself is not the proper participative faculty by which the greatest level of knowing is achieved. Only when reason and logic have behind them the movement of love and the proper moral preconditions can one achieve philosophical knowledge. (2) Love is likewise important insofar as its essence is the condition for the possibility of the givenness of value-objects and especially the givenness of an object in terms of its highest possible value. Love is the movement which "brings about the continuous emergence of ever-higher value in the object--just as if it was streaming out from the object of its own accord, without any sort of exertion...on the part of the lover. ...true love opens our spiritual eyes to ever-higher values in the object loved." Hatred, on the other hand, is the closing off of oneself or closing one's eyes to the world of values. It is in the latter context that value-inversions or devaluations become prevalent, and are sometimes solidified as proper in societies. Furthermore, by calling love a movement, Scheler hopes to dispel the interpretation that love and hate are only reactions to felt values rather than the very ground for the possibility of value-givenness (or value-concealment). Scheler writes, "Love and hate are acts in which the value-realm accessible to the feelings of a being...is either ''extended'' or ''narrowed''." Love and hate are to be distinguished from sensible and even psychical feelings; they are, instead, characterized by an intentional function (one always loves or hates ''something'') and therefore must belong to the same anthropological sphere as theoretical consciousness and the acts of willing and thinking. Scheler, therefore calls love and hate, "spiritual feelings," and are the basis for an "emotive ''a priori''" insofar as values, through love, are given in the same manner as are essences, through cognition. In short, love is a value-cognition, and insofar as it is determinative of the way in which a philosopher approaches the world, it is also indicative of a phenomenological attitude.


Material value-ethics

A fundamental aspect of Scheler's phenomenology is the extension of the realm of the '' a priori'' to include not only formal propositions, but material ones as well. Kant's identification of the ''a priori'' with the formal was a "fundamental error" which is the basis of his ethical formalism. Furthermore, Kant erroneously identified the realm of the non-formal (material) with sensible or empirical content. The heart of Scheler's criticism of Kant is within his theory of values. Values are given ''a priori'', and are "feelable" phenomena. The intentional feeling of love discloses values insofar as love opens a person evermore to beings-of-value (''Wertsein''). Additionally, values are not formal realities; they do not exist somewhere apart from the world and their bearers, and they only exist with a value-bearer, as a value-being. They are, therefore, part of the realm of a material ''a priori''. Nevertheless, values can vary with respect to their bearers without there ever occurring an alteration in the object as bearer. E.g., the value of a specific work of art or specific religious articles may vary according to differences of culture and religion. However, this variation of values with respect to their bearers by no means amounts to the relativity of values as such, but only with respect to the particular value-bearer. As such, the values of culture are always spiritual irrespective of the objects that may bear this value, and values of the holy still remain the highest values regardless of their bearers. According to Scheler, the disclosure of the value-being of an object precedes representation. The
axiological Axiology (from Greek , ''axia'': "value, worth"; and , ''-logia'': "study of") is the philosophical study of value. It includes questions about the nature and classification of values and about what kinds of things have value. It is intimately co ...
reality of values is given prior to knowing, but, upon being felt through value-feeling, can be known (as to their essential interconnections). Values and their corresponding disvalues are ranked according to their essential interconnections as follows: # Religiously-relevant values (holy/unholy) # Spiritual values (beauty/ugliness, knowledge/ignorance, right/wrong) # Vital values (health/unhealthiness, strength/weakness) # Sensible values (agreeable/disagreeable, comfort/discomfort) Further essential interconnections apply with respect to a value's (disvalue's) existence or non-existence: * The existence of a positive value is itself a positive value. * The existence of a negative value (disvalue) is itself a negative value. * The non-existence of a positive value is itself a negative value. * The non-existence of a negative value is itself a positive value.Max Scheler, ''Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values'', trans. M. Frings and R. Funk (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973), 26. And with respect to values of good and evil: * Good is the value that is attached to the realization of a positive value in the sphere of willing. * Evil is the value that is attached to the realization of a negative value in the sphere of willing. * Good is the value that is attached to the realization of a higher value in the sphere of willing. * Evil is the value that is attached to the realization of a lower value t the expense of a higher onein the sphere of willing. Goodness, however, is not simply "attached" to an act of willing, but originates ultimately within the disposition (''Gesinnung'') or "basic moral tenor" of the acting person. Accordingly: * The criterion of 'good' consists in the agreement of a value intended, in the realization, with the value preferred, or in its disagreement with the value rejected. * The criterion of 'evil' consists in the disagreement of a value intended, in the realization, with the value preferred, or in its agreement with the value rejected. Scheler argued that most of the older ethical systems (Kantian formalism, theonomic ethics, nietzscheanism, hedonism,
consequentialism In ethical philosophy, consequentialism is a class of normative, teleological ethical theories that holds that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct. Thus, from a ...
, and platonism, for example) fall into axiological error by emphasizing one value-rank to the exclusion of the others. A novel aspect of Scheler's ethics is the importance of the "
kairos Kairos ( grc, καιρός) is an ancient Greek word meaning 'the right, critical, or opportune moment'. In modern Greek, ''kairos'' also means 'weather' or 'time'. It is one of two words that the ancient Greeks had for 'time'; the other bei ...
" or call of the hour. Moral rules cannot guide the person to make ethical choices in difficult, existential life-choices. For Scheler, the very capacity to obey rules is rooted in the basic moral tenor of the person. A disorder "of the heart" occurs whenever a person prefers a value of a lower rank to a higher rank, or a disvalue to a value. The term ''Wertsein'' or value-being is used by Scheler in many contexts, but his untimely death prevented him from working out an
axiological Axiology (from Greek , ''axia'': "value, worth"; and , ''-logia'': "study of") is the philosophical study of value. It includes questions about the nature and classification of values and about what kinds of things have value. It is intimately co ...
ontology In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality. Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities ex ...
. Another unique and controversial element of Scheler's axiology is the notion of the emotive a priori: values can only be felt, just as color can only be seen. Reason cannot think values; the mind can only order categories of value after lived experience has happened. For Scheler, the person is the locus of value-experience, a timeless act-being that acts into time. Scheler's appropriation of a value-based metaphysics renders his phenomenology quite different from the phenomenology of consciousness (Husserl,
Sartre Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, ; ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism (and phenomenology), a French playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and liter ...
) or the existential analysis of the being-in-the-world of ''Dasein'' (
Heidegger Martin Heidegger (; ; 26 September 188926 May 1976) was a German philosopher who is best known for contributions to phenomenology, hermeneutics, and existentialism. He is among the most important and influential philosophers of the 20th centur ...
). Scheler's concept of the "
lived body Live may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films * ''Live!'' (2007 film), 2007 American film * ''Live'' (2014 film), a 2014 Japanese film *'' ''Live'' (Apocalyptica DVD) Music *Live (band), American alternative rock band * List of albums ...
" was appropriated in the early work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Max Scheler extended the phenomenological method to include a reduction of the scientific method too, thus questioning the idea of Husserl that phenomenological philosophy should be pursued as a rigorous science. Natural and scientific attitudes (''Einstellung'') are both phenomenologically counterpositive and hence must be sublated in the advancement of the real phenomenological reduction which, in the eyes of Scheler, has more the shapes of an allround ascesis (''Askese'') rather than a mere logical procedure of suspending the existential judgments. The ''Wesenschau'', according to Scheler, is an act of breaking down the Sosein limits of Sein A into the essential-ontological domain of Sein B, in short, an ontological participation of ''Sosenheiten'', seeing the things as such (cf. the Buddhist concept of '' tathata'', and the Christian theological '' quidditas'').


Man and History (1924)

Scheler planned to publish his major work in Anthropology in 1929, but the completion of such a project was curtailed by his premature death in 1928. Some fragments of such work have been published in ''Nachlass''. In 1924, ''Man and History'' (''Mensch und Geschichte''), Scheler gave some preliminary statements on the range and goal of philosophical anthropology.Cook, Sybol (2003
''Race and racism in continental philosophy''
/ref> In this book, Scheler argues for a
tabula rasa ''Tabula rasa'' (; "blank slate") is the theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception. Epistemological proponents of ''tabula rasa'' disagree with the doctr ...
of all the inherited prejudices from the three main traditions that have formulated an idea of man: religion, philosophy and science. Scheler argues that it is not enough just to reject such traditions, as did Nietzsche with the
Judeo-Christian The term Judeo-Christian is used to group Christianity and Judaism together, either in reference to Christianity's derivation from Judaism, Christianity's borrowing of Jewish Scripture to constitute the "Old Testament" of the Christian Bible, o ...
religion by saying that "God is dead"; these traditions have impregnated all parts of our culture, and therefore still determine a great deal of the way of thinking even of those that don't believe in the Christian God.chapter 1 To really get freedom from such traditions it is necessary to study and deconstruct them ( Husserl's term ''Abbau''). Scheler says that philosophical anthropology must address the totality of man, while it must be informed by the specialized sciences like
biology Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary ...
,
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between ...
,
sociology Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation and ...
, etc.


Works

* ''Zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegefühle und von Liebe und Hass'', 1913 * ''Der Genius des Kriegs und der Deutsche Krieg'', 1915 * ''Der Formalismus in der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik'', 1913 - 1916 * ''Krieg und Aufbau'', 1916 * ''Die Ursachen des Deutschenhasses'', 1917 * ''Vom Umsturz der Werte'', 1919 * ''Neuer Versuch der Grundlegung eines ethischen Personalismus'', 1921 * ''Vom Ewigen im Menschen'', 1921 * ''Probleme der Religion. Zur religiösen Erneuerung'', 1921 * ''Wesen und Formen der Sympathie'', 1923 (neu aufgelegt als Titel von 1913: Zur Phänomenologie ...) * ''Schriften zur Soziologie und Weltanschauungslehre'', 3 Bände, 1923/1924 * ''Die Wissensformen und die Gesellschaft'', 1926 * ''Der Mensch im Zeitalter des Ausgleichs'', 1927 * ''Die Stellung des Menschen im Kosmos'', 1928 * ''Philosophische Weltanschauung'', 1929 * ''Logik I.'' (Fragment, Korrekturbögen). Amsterdam 1975


English translations

*
The Nature of Sympathy
', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954. * 144 pages. (German title: ''Philosophische Weltanschauung''.) * 480 pages. * 201 pages. . * 359 pages. . * 620 pages. . (Original German edition: ''Der Formalismus in der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik'', 1913–16.) * 239 pages. . * 201 pages. . * 267 pages. . * 79 pages. .


See also

*
Axiological ethics Axiological ethics is concerned with the values by which we uphold our ethical standards and theories. It questions what, if any, basis exists for such values. Through doing so, it explores the justification for our values, and examines if there ...
*
Ressentiment (Scheler) Max Scheler (1874–1928) was both the most respected and neglected of the major early 20th century German Continental philosophers in the phenomenological tradition. His observations and insights concerning "a special form of human hate" and r ...
* Mimpathy


References


Sources

* 205 pages. . * 221 pages. . * 282 pages. . * 223 pages. * 118 pages. * 176 pages. * 324 pages. . 2nd ed., 2001. * 260 pages. . 2nd ed., 2001. * 203 pages. . * 247 pages. . * 213 pages. . (Original Dutch title: ''Max Scheler: De man en zijn werk'') * 130 pages. * 188 pages. . * 327 pages. .


External links


Max-Scheler-Gesellschaft (Max Scheler Society) - German-language website
* *
''Nature'', Vol. 63. March 7, 1901, Book review of: ''Die Transcendentale Und Die Psychologische Methode,'' ''Method in Philosophy'', Dr. Max F. Scheler, 1900

''The Monist, Vol 12, 1902'' Book review of: ''Die Transcendentale Und Die Psychologische Methode'', by Dr. Max F. Scheler 1900
in English
Prof. Frings' Max Scheler Website (www.maxscheler.com)


* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20021003170345/http://www.geocities.com/maxschelerbrasil/ A Filosofia de Max Scheler (Portuguese-language website)* (German) * {{DEFAULTSORT:Scheler, Max 1874 births 1928 deaths 19th-century essayists 19th-century German male writers 19th-century German philosophers 20th-century essayists 20th-century German philosophers Catholic philosophers German consciousness researchers and theorists Christian continental philosophers and theologians Epistemologists German ethicists German male essayists German male non-fiction writers German people of Jewish descent Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism German Roman Catholics German sociologists Jewish philosophers Metaphysicians Moral philosophers Ontologists People from the Kingdom of Bavaria Phenomenologists Philosophers of culture Philosophers of education Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of love Philosophers of mind Philosophers of religion Philosophical anthropology Philosophy academics Writers from Munich