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Marine conservation, also known as ocean conservation, is the protection and preservation of
ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syst ...
s in
ocean The ocean (also the sea or the world ocean) is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of the surface of Earth and contains 97% of Earth's water. An ocean can also refer to any of the large bodies of water into which the wor ...
s and
sea The sea, connected as the world ocean or simply the ocean, is the body of salty water that covers approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The word sea is also used to denote second-order sections of the sea, such as the Mediterranean Sea, ...
s through planned management in order to prevent the over-exploitation of these marine resources. Marine conservation is informed by the study of marine plants and animal resources and ecosystem functions and is driven by response to the manifested negative effects seen in the environment such as
species loss Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
, habitat degradation and changes in
ecosystem function An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...
s and focuses on limiting human-caused damage to
marine ecosystem Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the sur ...
s, restoring damaged marine ecosystems, and preserving
vulnerable species A vulnerable species is a species which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being threatened with extinction unless the circumstances that are threatening its survival and reproduction improve. Vulnera ...
and ecosystems of the
marine life Marine life, sea life, or ocean life is the plants, animals and other organisms that live in the salt water of seas or oceans, or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. At a fundamental level, marine life affects the nature of the planet. ...
. Marine conservation is a relatively new discipline which has developed as a response to biological issues such as
extinction Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the Endling, last individual of the species, although the Functional ext ...
and
marine habitats Marine habitats are habitats that support marine life. Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that is in the sea (the term ''marine'' comes from the Latin ''mare'', meaning sea or ocean). A habitat is an ecological or environmental ...
change. Marine conservationists rely on a combination of scientific principles derived from
marine biology Marine biology is the scientific study of the biology of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifi ...
,
Ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overl ...
,
oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynami ...
, and
fisheries science Fisheries science is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of limnology, oceanography, freshwater biology, marine biology, meteorology, conservation, ...
, as well as on human factors, such as demand for marine resources,
maritime law Admiralty law or maritime law is a body of law that governs nautical issues and private maritime disputes. Admiralty law consists of both domestic law on maritime activities, and private international law governing the relationships between priv ...
, economics, and policy, in order to determine how to best protect and conserve marine species and ecosystems. Marine conservation may be described as a sub-discipline of
conservation biology Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an in ...
.


Human impacts on marine ecosystems

Increasing human populations have resulted in increased human impact on ecosystems. Human activities has resulted in an increased extinction rate of species which has caused a major decrease in biological diversity of plants and animals in our environment. These impacts include increased pressure from fisheries including reef degradation and
overfishing Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in t ...
as well as pressure from the tourism industry which has increased over the past few years. The deterioration of coral reefs is mainly linked to human activities – 88% of reefs are threatened through various reasons as listed above, including excessive amounts of CO2 (
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is t ...
) emissions. Oceans absorb approximately 1/3 of the CO2 produced by humans, which has detrimental effects on the marine environment. The increasing levels of CO2 in oceans change the seawater chemistry by decreasing the pH, which is known as
ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the reduction in the pH value of the Earth’s ocean. Between 1751 and 2021, the average pH value of the ocean surface has decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14. The root cause of ocean acidification is carbon dioxid ...
.
Oil spill An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into t ...
s also impact marine environments, contributing to
marine pollution Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The major ...
as a result of human activity. The effects of oil on marine fish have been studied following major spills in the United States. Shipping is a major vector for the introduction of exotic marine species, some of which can become overabundant and transform ecosystems. Collisions with
ships A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguished ...
can also be fatal for whales and can impact on the viability of whole populations, including the
right whale Right whales are three species of large baleen whales of the genus ''Eubalaena'': the North Atlantic right whale (''E. glacialis''), the North Pacific right whale (''E. japonica'') and the Southern right whale (''E. australis''). They are c ...
population off the east coast of the United States.


Coral reefs

Coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of Colony (biology), colonies of coral polyp (zoology), polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, wh ...
s are the epicenter of immense amounts of
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic ('' genetic variability''), species ('' species diversity''), and ecosystem ('' ecosystem diversity'') ...
and are a key player in the survival of entire ecosystems. They provide various marine animals with food, protection, and shelter which keep generations of species alive. Furthermore, coral reefs are an integral part of sustaining human life through serving as a food source (i.e., fish and mollusks) as well as a marine space for
ecotourism Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving responsible travel (using sustainable transport) to natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local people. Its purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide fund ...
which provides economic benefits. Also, humans are now conducting research regarding the use of corals as new potential sources for pharmaceuticals (i.e. steroids and anti-inflammatory drugs). Unfortunately, because of the human impact on coral reefs, these ecosystems are becoming increasingly degraded and in need of conservation. The biggest threats include
overfishing Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in t ...
, destructive fishing practices, sedimentation, and pollution from land-based sources.Burke, Lauretta, Liz Selig, and Mark Spalding (2001). "Reefs At Risk in Southeast Asia." World Resources Institute, p. 72. This, in conjunction with increased carbon in oceans, coral bleaching, and diseases, means that there are no pristine reefs anywhere in the world. Up to 88% of coral reefs in Southeast Asia are now threatened, with 50% of those reefs at either "high" or "very high" risk of disappearing, which directly affects the biodiversity and survival of species dependent on coral. This is especially harmful to
island nations An island country, island state or an island nation is a country whose primary territory consists of one or more islands or parts of islands. Approximately 25% of all independent countries are island countries. Island countries are historically ...
such as
Samoa Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands ( Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands ( Manono and Apolima); ...
,
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
, and the
Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...
, because many people there depend on the coral reef ecosystems to feed their families and to make a living. However, many fishermen are unable to catch as many fish as they used to, so they are increasingly using
cyanide Cyanide is a naturally occurring, rapidly acting, toxic chemical that can exist in many different forms. In chemistry, a cyanide () is a chemical compound that contains a functional group. This group, known as the cyano group, consists of ...
and
dynamite Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and patented in 1867. It rapidl ...
in
fishing Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are often caught as wildlife from the natural environment, but may also be caught from fish stocking, stocked bodies of water such as fish pond, ponds, canals, park wetlands and reservoirs. ...
, which further degrades the coral reef ecosystem. This perpetuation of bad habits simply leads to the further decline of coral reefs and therefore perpetuates the problem. One way of stopping this cycle is by educating the local community about why the conservation of marine spaces that include coral reefs is important.


Overfishing

Overfishing Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in t ...
is one of main causes of the decrease in the ocean’s wildlife population over the past years. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation reported that the percentage of the world's fish stocks that are at biologically sustainable levels have decreased from 90% in 1974 to 65.8% in 2017. The overfishing of these large fisheries destroys the marine environment and threatens the livelihood of billions who depend on fish as protein or as a source of income for catching and selling. According to the
World Wildlife Fund The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the W ...
, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing is a major factor in overfishing.
Illegal fishing Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) is an issue around the world. Fishing industry observers believe IUU occurs in most fisheries, and accounts for up to 30% of total catches in some important fisheries. Illegal fishing takes p ...
is estimated to account for up to 30% of the catch for some high value species, and the industry is estimated to be worth $36 billion per year.


Overabundance

Overabundance can occur when the population of a certain species cannot be controlled naturally or by human intervention. The domination of one species can create an imbalance in an ecosystem, which can lead to the demise of other species and of the habitat.Ray, G. Carleton (2004) "Issues and Mechanisms", part 1 in ''Coastal-marine Conservation: Science and Policy''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. . Overabundance occurs predominately among
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species adv ...
.


Introduced species

The international
shipping Freight transport, also referred as ''Freight Forwarding'', is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo. The term shipping originally referred to transport by sea but in American English, it has been ...
trade has led to the establishment of many marine species beyond their native ranges. Some of these can have adverse consequences, such as the North pacific seastar which was introduced to Tasmania, Australia. Vectors for the translocation of organisms include hull
biofouling Biofouling or biological fouling is the accumulation of microorganisms, plants, algae, or small animals where it is not wanted on surfaces such as ship and submarine hulls, devices such as water inlets, pipework, grates, ponds, and rivers tha ...
, the dumping of ballast water and dumping of water from marine aquaria. A tank of ballast water is estimated to contain around 3,000 non-native species. Once established, it is difficult to eradicate an exotic organism from an ecosystem. The
San Francisco Bay San Francisco Bay is a large tidal estuary in the U.S. state of California, and gives its name to the San Francisco Bay Area. It is dominated by the big cities of San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland. San Francisco Bay drains water f ...
is one of the places in the world that is the most impacted by foreign and invasive species. According to the Baykeeper organization, 97 percent of the organisms in the San Francisco Bay have been compromised by the 240 invasive species that have been brought into the ecosystem. Invasive species in the bay such as the Asian clam have changed the food web of the ecosystem by depleting populations of native species such as plankton. The Asian clam clogs pipes and obstructs the flow of water in electrical generating facilities. Their presence in the San Francisco Bay has cost the United States an estimated one billion dollars in damages.


Extinct and endangered species


Marine mammals

Baleen whale Baleen whales ( systematic name Mysticeti), also known as whalebone whales, are a parvorder of carnivorous marine mammals of the infraorder Cetacea ( whales, dolphins and porpoises) which use keratinaceous baleen plates (or "whalebone") in t ...
s were predominantly hunted from 1600 through the mid-1900s, and were nearing extinction when a global ban on commercial whaling was put into effect in 1986 by the IWC (International Whaling Convention). The Atlantic gray whale, last sighted in 1740, is now extinct due to European and Native American whaling. Since the 1960s the global population of
monk seal Monk seals are earless seals of the tribe Monachini. They are the only earless seals found in tropical climates. The two genera of monk seals, ''Monachus'' and ''Neomonachus'', comprise three species: the Mediterranean monk seal, ''Monachus monac ...
s has been rapidly declining. The Hawaiian and Mediterranean monk seals are considered to be one of the most endangered marine mammals on the planet, according to the
NOAA The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (abbreviated as NOAA ) is an United States scientific and regulatory agency within the United States Department of Commerce that forecasts weather, monitors oceanic and atmospheric conditio ...
. The last sighting of the Caribbean monk seal was in 1952, and it has now been confirmed extinct by the NOAA. The
vaquita The vaquita ( ; ''Phocoena sinus'') is a species of porpoise endemic to the northern end of the Gulf of California in Baja California, Mexico. Averaging (females) or (males) in length, it is the smallest of all living cetaceans. The species i ...
porpoise, discovered in 1958, has become the most endangered marine species. Over half the population has disappeared since 2012, leaving 100 left in 2014. The vaquita frequently drowns in fishing nets, which are used illegally in
marine protected area Marine protected areas (MPA) are protected areas of seas, oceans, estuaries or in the US, the Great Lakes. These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities. MPAs restrict human activity for a con ...
s off the Gulf of Mexico.


Sea turtles

In 2004, the Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG), from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), ran an assessment which determined that
green turtle The green sea turtle (''Chelonia mydas''), also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus ''Chelonia''. Its range exten ...
s were globally endangered. Population decline in ocean basins is indicated through data collected by the MTSG that analyzes abundance and historical information on the species. This data examined the global population of green turtles at 32 nesting sites, and determined that over the last 100–150 years there has been a 48–65 percent decrease in the number of mature nesting females. The
Kemp's ridley Kemp's ridley sea turtle (''Lepidochelys kempii''), also called the Atlantic ridley sea turtle, is the rarest species of sea turtle and is the world's most endangered species of sea turtle. It is one of two living species in the genus '' Lepido ...
sea turtle population fell in 1947 when 33,000 nests, which accounted for 80 percent of the population, were collected and sold by villagers in Racho Nuevo, Mexico. In the early 1960s only 5,000 individuals were left, and between 1978 and 1991, 200 Kemp's Ridley Turtles nested annually. In 2015, the World Wildlife Fund and ''
National Geographic Magazine ''National Geographic'' (formerly the ''National Geographic Magazine'', sometimes branded as NAT GEO) is a popular American monthly magazine published by National Geographic Partners. Known for its photojournalism, it is one of the most widely ...
'' named the Kemp's ridley the most endangered sea turtle in the world, with 1000 females nesting annually.


Fish

In 2014, the IUCN moved the
Pacific bluefin tuna The Pacific bluefin tuna (''Thunnus orientalis'') is a predatory species of tuna found widely in the northern Pacific Ocean, but it is migratory and also recorded as a visitor to the south Pacific. In the past it was often included in '' T. t ...
from "least concerned" to "vulnerable" on a scale that represents level of extinction risk. The Pacific bluefin tuna is targeted by the fishing industry mainly for its use in sushi. A stock assessment released in 2013 by the International Scientific Committee for Tuna and Tuna-Like Species in the North Pacific Ocean (ISC) shows that the Pacific bluefin tuna population dropped by 96 percent in the Pacific Ocean. According to the ISC assessment, 90 percent of the Pacific bluefin tuna caught are juveniles that have not reproduced. Between 2011 and 2014, the
European eel The European eel (''Anguilla anguilla'') is a species of eel, a snake-like, catadromous fish. They are normally around and rarely reach more than , but can reach a length of up to in exceptional cases. Eels have been important sources of ...
, Japanese eel, and
American eel The American eel (''Anguilla rostrata'') is a facultative catadromous fish found on the eastern coast of North America. Freshwater eels are fish belonging to the elopomorph superorder, a group of phylogenetically ancient teleosts. The Amer ...
were put on the
IUCN red list The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data Book, founded in 1964, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biolo ...
of endangered species. In 2015, the Environmental Agency concluded that the number of European eels has declined by 95 percent since 1990. An Environmental Agency officer, Andy Don, who has been researching eels for the past 20 years, said, "There is no doubt that there is a crisis. People have been reporting catching a kilo of glass eels this year when they would expect to catch 40 kilos. We have got to do something."


Marine plants

Johnson's seagrass, a food source for the endangered green sea turtle, is the scarcest species in its genus. It reproduces asexually, which limits its ability to populate and colonize habitats. This seagrass is the only marine plant to be listed under the
Endangered Species Act The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or "The Act"; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is the primary law in the United States for protecting imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of ec ...
, and in 1998, it was granted protection as an endangered species. Data on this species is limited, but it is known that since the 1970s there has been a 50 percent decrease in abundance. There are many reasons behind the decline in the seagrass's proliferation, such as degradation of water quality, careless boating activities, anchoring. In addition to that hurricane activity caused by
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...
, increase the risk of extinction of the Johnson's seagrass.


Techniques

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with
marine protected area Marine protected areas (MPA) are protected areas of seas, oceans, estuaries or in the US, the Great Lakes. These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities. MPAs restrict human activity for a con ...
s (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. These protected areas may be established for a variety of reasons and aim to limit the impact of human activity. These protected areas operate differently which includes areas that have seasonal closures and/or permanent closures as well as multiple levels of zoning that allow people to carryout different activities in separate areas; including, speed, no take and multi-use zones. Other techniques include developing
sustainable fisheries A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Sustainability in fisheries combines theoretical disciplin ...
and restoring the populations of endangered species through artificial means. Another focus of conservationists is on curtailing human activities that are detrimental to either marine ecosystems or species through policy, techniques such as fishing quotas, like those set up by the
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) is an intergovernmental organization with a mandate to provide scientific advice and management of fisheries in the northwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean. NAFO is headquartered in Halifax, N ...
, or laws such as those listed below. Recognizing the economics involved in human use of marine ecosystems is key, as is education of the public about conservation issues. This includes educating tourists that come to an area who might not be familiar with certain regulations regarding the marine habitat. One example of this is a project called Green Fins based in
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...
that uses the
scuba diving Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving whereby divers use breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface air supply. The name "scuba", an acronym for " Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus", was coined by Chr ...
industry to educate the public. This project, implemented by
UNEP The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on ...
, encourages scuba diving operators to educate their students about the importance of marine conservation and encourage them to dive in an environmentally friendly manner that does not damage coral reefs or associated marine ecosystems. Scientists divide the process by a few parts, and there are various techniques in each part of it. In marking and capturing, the normal techniques include techniques for restraint in pinnipeds, chemical restraint and immobilization in pinnipeds, techniques for capture-release of cetaceans and techniques for restraint and handling. Recently, some novel approaches include remote sensing techniques to model exposure of coastal-marine ecosystems to riverine flood plumes and advanced iconography. Techniques also include many social science-based methods. Many researchers have found the effectiveness of marine conservation through change caused by social events and encourage
sustainable tourism Sustainable tourism is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for economic, social and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs of host communities. Su ...
development to raise the public awareness of it. Researchers suggest integrating customary management into marine conservation and emphasize that practical and conceptual differences exist between customary management and contemporary conservation which have often led to failed attempts to hybridize these systems. Others have suggested to integrate marine conservation and tourism, the establishment of conservation areas can help reduce conflicts. Zoning the protected areas enables the grouping of compatible areas into specific zones and the separation of incompatible areas. Common techniques to raise the general public’s attention also include exposure to the concept of the
carbon footprint A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an individual, event, organization, service, place or product, expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). Greenhouse gases, including the carbon-containing gases carbo ...
and to educate people to make sustainable food choices and use fewer plastic products.


Technology and halfway technology

Marine conservation technologies are used to protect endangered and threatened marine organisms and/or habitat. These technologies are innovative and revolutionary because they reduce by-catch, increase the survivorship and health of marine life and habitat, and benefit fishermen who depend on the resources for profit. Examples of technologies include marine protected areas (MPAs), turtle excluder devices (TEDs), autonomous recording unit, pop-up satellite archival tag, and radio-frequency identification (RFID). Commercial practicality plays an important role in the success of marine conservation because it is necessary to cater to the needs of fishermen while also protecting marine life. Pop-up satellite archival tag (PSAT or PAT) plays a vital role in marine conservation by providing marine biologists with an opportunity to study animals in their natural environments. These are used to track movements of (usually large, migratory)
marine Marine is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the sea or ocean. Marine or marines may refer to: Ocean * Maritime (disambiguation) * Marine art * Marine biology * Marine debris * Marine habitats * Marine life * Marine pollution Military ...
animals. A PSAT is an archival tag (or
data logger A data logger (also datalogger or data recorder) is an electronic device that records data over time or about location either with a built-in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they a ...
) that is equipped with a means to transmit the collected data via satellite. Though the data are physically stored on the tag, its major advantage is that it does not have to be physically retrieved like an archival tag for the
data In the pursuit of knowledge, data (; ) is a collection of discrete values that convey information, describing quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of symbols that may be further interpret ...
to be available, making it a viable independent tool for animal behavior studies. These tags have been used to track movements of
ocean sunfish The ocean sunfish or common mola (''Mola mola'') is one of the largest bony fish in the world. It was misidentified as the heaviest bony fish, which was actually a different species, '' Mola alexandrini''. Adults typically weigh between . The sp ...
,
marlin Marlins are fish from the family Istiophoridae, which includes about 10 species. A marlin has an elongated body, a spear-like snout or bill, and a long, rigid dorsal fin which extends forward to form a crest. Its common name is thought to deri ...
,
blue shark The blue shark (''Prionace glauca''), also known as the great blue shark, is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, which inhabits deep waters in the world's temperate and tropical oceans. Averaging around and preferring ...
s, bluefin tuna,
swordfish Swordfish (''Xiphias gladius''), also known as broadbills in some countries, are large, highly migratory predatory fish characterized by a long, flat, pointed bill. They are a popular sport fish of the billfish category, though elusive. Swordf ...
and
sea turtles Sea turtles (superfamily Chelonioidea), sometimes called marine turtles, are reptiles of the order Testudines and of the suborder Cryptodira. The seven existing species of sea turtles are the flatback, green, hawksbill, leatherback, loggerhe ...
. Location, depth, temperature, and body movement data are used to answer questions about migratory patterns, seasonal feeding movements, daily habits, and survival after catch and release. Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) remove a major threat to turtles in their marine environment. Many sea turtles are accidentally captured, injured or killed by fishing. In response to this threat the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) worked with the shrimp trawling industry to create the TEDs. By working with the industry they insured the commercial viability of the devices. A TED is a series of bars that is placed at the top or bottom of a trawl net, fitting the bars into the "neck" of the shrimp trawl and acting as a filter to ensure that only small animals may pass through. The shrimp will be caught but larger animals such as marine turtles that become caught by the trawler will be rejected by the filter function of the bars. Similarly, halfway technologies work to increase the population of marine organisms. However, they do so without behavioral changes, and address the symptoms but not the cause of the declines. Examples of halfway technologies include hatcheries and fish ladders.


Laws and treaties

International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the 1966 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas.
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
laws related to marine conservation include the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, which established the
National Marine Sanctuaries A U.S. National Marine Sanctuary is a zone within United States waters where the marine environment enjoys special protection. The program began in 1972 in response to public concern about the plight of marine ecosystems. A U.S. National Marine ...
program. In 2010, the
Scottish Parliament The Scottish Parliament ( gd, Pàrlamaid na h-Alba ; sco, Scots Pairlament) is the devolved, unicameral legislature of Scotland. Located in the Holyrood area of the capital city, Edinburgh, it is frequently referred to by the metonym Holyr ...
enacted new legislation for the protection of marine life with the Marine (Scotland) Act 2010. Its provisions include marine planning, marine licensing, marine conservation,
seal Seal may refer to any of the following: Common uses * Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly: ** Earless seal, or "true seal" ** Fur seal * Seal (emblem), a device to imp ...
conservation, and enforcement. Since 2006,
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoni ...
introduce vulnerable marine ecosystem concept for the management of deep-sea fisheries in the areas beyond national jurisdiction. This concept has been transposed by the European parliament for Atlantic European waters. The United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. , 167 ...
establishes guidelines for all uses of the oceans' resources and establishes a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas. On December 10, 1982, the Convention was made available for signature at Montego Bay, Jamaica. More than 150 nations representing all world regions, all legal and political systems, and the full range of socio-economic development participated. The Convention introduced new legal concepts, addressed new issues, and combined the conventional norms for the usage of the oceans into one document. The Convention also established the framework for furthering the study of particular facets of maritime law. On November 16, 1994, the Convention came into effect in line with article 308. Today, it is the widely acknowledged system in charge of resolving all matters regarding the law of the sea. The Convention regulates all facets of ocean space, including delimitation, environmental control, marine scientific research, economic and commercial activity, transfer of technology, and the resolution of disputes pertaining to ocean issues. It has 320 articles and nine annexes. Additionally, the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) works to safeguard oceans and seas and encourage the wise use of marine resources, particularly through its Regional Seas Program. The sole international legal foundation for regional ocean and sea protection is the Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities was also established by UNEP. The relationship between terrestrial, freshwater, coastal, and marine ecosystems is directly addressed by it, which makes it the only international intergovernmental instrument to do so. Through the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC/UNESCO) was established by resolution 2.31 adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO. It first met in Paris at Unesco Headquarters from 19 to 27 October 1961. Initially, 40 States becam ...
, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international coope ...
) organizes programs in marine research, observation systems, hazard mitigation, and better managing ocean and coastal ecosystems. At the 1998 Oslo and Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, environmental ministers from 15 Northeast Atlantic states and members of the European Commission agreed to identify marine species, habitats, and ecosystems that need protection and to "promote the establishment of a network of marine protected areas to ensure the sustainable use, protection, and conservation of marine biological diversity.”


Global goals

Marine conservation is included in the United Nations framework of
Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future".United Nations (2017) R ...
(SDGs), most notably in SDG 14 ("Life below water"). The text of Target 14.5 is: "By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information".United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
A/RES/71/313
This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.5.1 is the "coverage of
protected area Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the ena ...
s in relation to marine areas". The term " Marine Protected Areas" include marine reserves, fully protected marine areas, no-take zones, marine sanctuaries, ocean sanctuaries, marine parks, locally managed marine areas and other. Each area has a specific level of protection and a specific allowed range of activities.


Organizations

There are marine conservation
non-governmental organizations A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in ...
throughout the world that focus on funding conservation efforts, educating the public and stakeholders, and lobbying for conservation law and policy. Examples of these include: * Ocean Wise (Canada) * Oceana * Blue Ventures *
Marine Conservation Society The Marine Conservation Society is a UK based not-for-profit organization working with businesses, governments and communities to clean and protect the oceans. Founded in 1983, the group claims to be working towards "cleaner, better-protected, h ...
(
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and ...
) *
Fauna and Flora International Fauna & Flora International (FFI) is an international conservation charity and non-governmental organization dedicated to protecting the planet's threatened wildlife and habitats. Founded in 1903, it is the world's oldest international conser ...
*
Marine Conservation Institute Marine Conservation Institute (formerly Marine Conservation Biology Institute) is a tax-exempt nonprofit Marine conservation, ocean conservation organization working to identify and protect vulnerable ocean ecosystems worldwide. The organization i ...
(United States) * Blue Frontier Campaign (
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
) *
Sea Shepherd Conservation Society The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society (SSCS) is a non-profit, marine conservation activism organization based in Friday Harbor on San Juan Island, Washington, in the United States. Sea Shepherd employs direct action tactics to achieve its ...
(international) * Community Centered Conservation (C3) * Reef-World Foundation (
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and ...
) * Reef Watch (India) * Marinelife Alliance (Bangladesh) * Live Ocean (New Zealand) * ProtectedSeas (United States) *
Australian Marine Conservation Society The Australian Marine Conservation Society (AMCS) is an Australian environmental not-for-profit organisation. It was founded in 1965 as the Queensland Littoral Society before changing its name to the Australian Littoral Society and then finally in ...
* Mission Blue, which leads the Hope Spots initiative * Zoox (
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and ...
) is an example of an organization that provides both marine conservation training and professional career development to volunteers who are also working on marine conservation projects such as Green Fins. On a regional level, PERSGA, the Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, is a regional entity which serves as the secretariat for the Jeddah Convention-1982, one of the first regional marine agreements. PERSGA member states are Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen.


Prominent campaigns

There have been a number of organized efforts from marine conservation groups such as those aforementioned in this article to raise awareness of the human impact on the situation and inspire people to take action. Some groups take on more public facing campaigns that directly attempt to get civilians engaged with the issue compared to other groups who encourage donations from civilians which goes towards lobbying and advocacy towards the government. Ocean Conservancy and its International Coastal Cleanup is an example of a public-facing campaign that aims to increase participation in conservation efforts among every day civilians. On a predetermined date every year, Ocean Conservancy promotes The International Coastal Cleanup to rally communities to volunteer to collect trash from the coastlines across the globe. The campaign has expanded originally from its two founders and has now reached over 100 countries. Oceana is an example of an advocacy/lobbying group that encourages donations as a means to enact legislation and protect the laws of the ocean. Specifically, Oceana is currently lobbying to prevent the expansion of offshore drilling with emphasis in areas such as the Arctic and Belize. Oceana is currently mentioned in a wide range of bills in the US Congress regarding issues such as anti-drilling protections on the Atlantic coast and the penalty for buying, selling, possessing, or transporting shark fins.
Greenpeace Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning network, founded in Canada in 1971 by Irving Stowe and Dorothy Stowe, immigrant environmental activists from the United States. Greenpeace states its goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth t ...
is another non-profit organization that seeks to campaign for a healthier environment and more sustainable environmental practices. While the organization addresses a wide range of topics outside of ocean conservation, it is currently focusing in on
plastic pollution Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (e.g. plastic bottles, bags and microbeads) in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat. Plastics that act as pollutants are cate ...
, sustainable seafood, and protecting the Arctic. They provide information online on their website regarding their current efforts which can help people get connected to the correct resources to make a difference in their community.


Events and initiatives

There have been a wide variety of different events and initiatives to spread the message about the issue.


Events


International Ocean Film Festival

This film festival is the largest ocean destination event according to the MCI. Also known as the IOFF, this event is a four-day film festival that includes over 50 films related to ocean-life around the globe. This event is made to educate viewers and the audience on the environmental issues that are negatively impacting the ocean. Films also include potential solutions to help protect the ocean and environment as well.


Rising Tide Summit

This summit is led by Boardriders Foundation, XPRIZE Foundation, and Marisla Foundation. The summit is more interactive as it provides a panel of speakers as well as a portion for questions and answers. Towards the latter half of the event, companies and individuals are able to participate in a workshop so they can learn more about the benefits of a “blue economy”. This event is centered towards the California population


Initiatives

#SaveOurOceans is a social media campaign that draws NGOs and social media platforms together in the form of a TikTok contest. TikTok has partnered with Conservation International to protect marine life. The #SaveOurOceans campaign was able to reach globally due to influencers spreading the message to a wide audience. Local and global influencers alike played a role in spreading the campaign. TikTok declared that they would donate $2 for every video uploaded with the hashtag, up to $100,000, towards protecting oceans and marine life by reducing plastic waste. #SuitUpToCleanUp is another social media campaign centered around promoting marine conservation. Launched in August and September 2018 by Ocean Conservancy, the campaign was intended to inspire participants to clean up pollution in their local waterways. The campaign was meant to coincide with Ocean Conservancy's 33rd Annual International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) on September 15, 2018. The phrase #SuitUpToCleanUp was a way for people to share their stories of how they helped clean up in unique ways.


History of marine conservation

Modern marine conservation first became globally recognized in the 1970s after
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
in an era known as the "marine revolution". The
United States federal legislation In the law of the United States, the Code of Laws of the United States of America (variously abbreviated to Code of Laws of the United States, United States Code, U.S. Code, U.S.C., or USC) is the official compilation and codification of th ...
showed its support of marine conservation by institutionalizing protected areas and creating marine estuaries. In the late-1940s the
International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
(IUCN)was formed.Zacharias, Mark (2014). "Marine Environmental Protection Policy: International Efforts to Address Threats to Marine Biodiversity" in ''Marine Policy: An Introduction to Governance and International Law of the Oceans''. Routledge. . This program eventually developed into a platform where nations could communicate and make agreements about marine conservation. After the formation of the IUCN, new independent organizations known as
non-governmental organization A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in ...
s started to appear. These organizations were self-governed and had individual goals for marine conservation. At the end of the 1970s, undersea explorations equipped with new technology such as computers were undertaken. During these explorations, fundamental principles of change were discovered in relation to marine ecosystems. Through this discovery, the interdependent nature of the ocean was revealed. This led to a change in the approach of marine conservation efforts, and a new emphasis was put on restoring systems within the environment, along with protecting biodiversity.Hinrichsen, Don (2011). ''The Atlas of Coasts & Oceans: Ecosystems, Threatened Resources, Marine Conservation''. University of Chicago.


See also

* List of vulnerable arthropods * List of critically endangered arthropods *
List of vulnerable invertebrates A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby union ...
* List of critically endangered invertebrates * List of vulnerable fishes * List of critically endangered fishes


References


Bibliography

*
Ocean Life Faces Mass Extinction, Broad Study Says
– review of the ''Science'' article in the ''New York Times'' * * Lang, Michael A., Ian G. Macintyre, and Klaus Rützler, ed
''Proceedings of the Smithsonian Marine Science Symposium.''
Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 38. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.
Marine Conservation Institute
bibliography of resources
Norse, Elliott A.
* * *


External links


IUCN Global Marine and Polar Programme
* {{Natural resources