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The Mapuche ( (Mapuche & Spanish: )) are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...
and southwestern
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest ...
, including parts of
Patagonia Patagonia () refers to a geographical region that encompasses the southern end of South America, governed by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the southern section of the Andes Mountains with lakes, fjords, temperate rainforests, and g ...
. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious, and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as
Mapudungun Mapuche (, Mapuche & Spanish: , or Mapudungun; from ' 'land' and ' 'speak, speech') is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people (from ''mapu'' 'land' and ''che ...
speakers. Their habitat once extended from Aconcagua Valley to Chiloé Archipelago and later spread eastward to Puelmapu, a land comprising part of the Argentine pampa and
Patagonia Patagonia () refers to a geographical region that encompasses the southern end of South America, governed by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the southern section of the Andes Mountains with lakes, fjords, temperate rainforests, and g ...
. Today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile, and about 9% of the total Chilean population. The Mapuche are particularly concentrated in the Araucanía region. Many have migrated from rural areas to the cities of
Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whos ...
and
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
for economic opportunities. The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organization consists of extended families, under the direction of a '' lonko'' or chief. In times of war, the Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a '' toki'' (meaning "axe" or "axe-bearer") to lead them. Mapuche material culture is known for its
textiles Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
and silverwork. At the time of Spanish arrival, the Araucanian Mapuche inhabited the valleys between the
Itata ''Itata'' is a genus of spiders in the jumping spider family, Salticidae. Name The genus name is derived from the Itata River in southern Chile. Species * '' Itata completa'' (Banks, 1929) – Panama * '' Itata isabellina'' ( Taczanowski, 1 ...
and
Toltén Toltén is a Chilean commune located at the lower flows Toltén River at the southern coast of Cautín Province which is part of Araucanía Region. The commune is administered by the municipality Nueva Toltén, the main harbour and town within th ...
rivers. South of there, the
Huilliche The Huilliche , Huiliche or Huilliche-Mapuche are the southern partiality of the Mapuche macroethnic group of Chile. Located in the Zona Sur, they inhabit both Futahuillimapu ("great land of the south") and, as the Cunco subgroup, the north ha ...
and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the
Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
and
pampa The Pampas (from the qu, pampa, meaning "plain") are fertile South American low grasslands that cover more than and include the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, and Córdoba; all of Uruguay; and Brazi ...
s, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the same time, ethnic groups of the pampa regions, the Puelche, Ranquel and northern Aonikenk, made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture, in what came to be called Araucanization, during which Patagonia came under effective Mapuche suzerainty. Mapuche in the Spanish-ruled areas, especially the Picunche, mingled with Spanish during the colonial period, forming a
mestizo (; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though thei ...
population that lost its indigenous identity. But Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the late nineteenth century, when Chile occupied Araucanía and Argentina conquered Puelmapu. Since then the Mapuche have become subjects, and then nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Mapuche communities are engaged in the so-called
Mapuche conflict The Mapuche conflict ( es, conflicto mapuche) involves indigenous Mapuche communities located in Araucanía and nearby regions of Chile and Argentina. It is often referred to as a conflict between the Mapuche and the Chilean government or state ...
over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and in Chile.


Etymology

Historically the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians (, ''araucanos''). This term is now considered pejorative by some people, contrary for others, the importance of the term Araucanian lies in the universality of the epic work ''
La Araucana ''La Araucana'' (also known in English as ''The Araucaniad'') is a 16th-century epic poem in Spanish by Alonso de Ercilla, about the Spanish Conquest of Chile. It was considered the national epic of the Captaincy General of Chile and one of the ...
'', written by
Alonso de Ercilla Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga (7 August 153329 November 1594) was a Spanish soldier and poet, born in Madrid. While in Chile (1556–63) he fought against the Araucanians (Mapuche), and there he began the epic poem ''La Araucana'', considered one o ...
and the feat of that people, in the long and interminable war against the Spanish Empire. The name was likely derived from the placename ''rag ko'' (Spanish Arauco), meaning "clayey water".''Mapuche o Araucano''
The Quechua word ''awqa,'' meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of ''araucano.'' Scholars believe that the various Mapuche groups ( Moluche, Huilliche, Picunche, etc.) called themselves ''Reche'' during the early Spanish colonial period, due to what they referred to as their pure native blood, derived from ''Re'' meaning pure and ''Che'' meaning people. The name "Mapuche" is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or at other times, exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía. However, Mapuche is a relatively recent endonym meaning "People of the Earth" or "Children of the Earth", "mapu" means earth and "che" means person. It is preferred as a term when referring to the "Mapuche" people after the Arauco War. The Mapuche identify by the geography of their territories, such as: * Pwelche or Puelche: "people of the east" occupied ''Pwel mapu'' or ''Puel mapu'', the eastern lands (Pampa and Patagonia of Argentina). * Pikunche or Picunche: "people of the north" occupied ''Pikun-mapu'', the "northern lands". * Williche or
Huilliche The Huilliche , Huiliche or Huilliche-Mapuche are the southern partiality of the Mapuche macroethnic group of Chile. Located in the Zona Sur, they inhabit both Futahuillimapu ("great land of the south") and, as the Cunco subgroup, the north ha ...
: "people of the south" occupied ''Willi mapu'', the "southern lands". *
Pewenche Pehuenche (or ''Pewenche'', people of the "pehuen" or "pewen" in Mapudungun) are an indigenous people of South America. They live in the Andes, primarily in present-day south central Chile and adjacent Argentina. Their name derives from their ...
or Pehuenche: "people of the pewen/pehuen" occupied ''Pewen mapu'', "the land of the pewen ( Araucaria araucana) tree". * Lafkenche: "people of the sea" occupied ''Lafken mapu'', "the land of the sea"; also known as ''Coastal Mapuche''. * Nagche: "people of the plains" occupied ''Nag mapu'', "the land of the plains" (located in sectors of the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta and the low zones bordering it). Its epic and literary name is Araucanians and its old autochthonous name is Reche. The ancient Mapuche Toqui ("axe-bearer") like Lef-Traru ("swift hawk", better known as Lautaro), Kallfülikan ("blue quartz stone", better known as
Caupolicán Caupolicán (meaning ‘polished flint’ (queupu) or ‘blue quartz stone’ (Kallfulikan) in Mapudungun) was a ''toqui'' or war leader of the Mapuche people, who led the resistance of his people against the Spanish Conquistadors who invaded the ...
– "polished flint") or Pelontraru ("Shining Caracara", better known as Pelantaro) were Nagche. * Wenteche: "people of the valleys" occupied ''Wente mapu'', "the land of the valleys".


History


Pre-Columbian period

Archaeological finds have shown that Mapuche culture existed in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Bengoa 2000, pp. 16–19. Genetically the Mapuche differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia. This suggests a "different origin or long lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations". Troops of the
Inca Empire The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, ( Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts",  "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The adm ...
are reported to have reached the
Maule River The Maule river or Río Maule ( Mapudungun: ''rainy'') is one of the most important rivers of Chile. It is inextricably linked to the country's pre-Hispanic (Inca) times, the country's conquest, colonial period, wars of Independence, modern hi ...
and had a battle with the Mapuche between the Maule and the
Itata River The Itata River flows in the Ñuble Region, southern Chile. Until the Conquest of Chile, the Itata was the natural limit between the Mapuche The Mapuche ( (Mapuche & Spanish: )) are a group of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous i ...
s there.Bengoa 2003, pp. 37–38. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between
Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whos ...
and the Maipo River, or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River. Thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for the first time met people with state organization. Their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization.Bengoa 2003, p. 40. At the time of the arrival of the first Spaniards to Chile the largest indigenous population concentration was in the area spanning from
Itata River The Itata River flows in the Ñuble Region, southern Chile. Until the Conquest of Chile, the Itata was the natural limit between the Mapuche The Mapuche ( (Mapuche & Spanish: )) are a group of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous i ...
to
Chiloé Island Chiloé Island ( es, Isla de Chiloé, , ) also known as Greater Island of Chiloé (''Isla Grande de Chiloé''), is the largest island of the Chiloé Archipelago off the west coast of Chile, in the Pacific Ocean. The island is located in southern ...
that is the Mapuche heartland.Otero 2006, p. 36. The Mapuche population between Itata River and Reloncaví Sound has been estimated at 705,000–900,000 in the mid-sixteenth century by historian José Bengoa.Bengoa 2003, p. 157.


Arauco War

The Spanish expansion into Mapuche territory was an offshoot of the conquest of Peru.Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 91–93. In 1541
Pedro de Valdivia Pedro Gutiérrez de Valdivia or Valdiva (; April 17, 1497 – December 25, 1553) was a Spanish conquistador and the first royal governor of Chile. After serving with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders, he was sent to South America in 1534, wh ...
reached Chile from Cuzco and founded
Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whos ...
.Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 96–97. The northern Mapuche tribes, known as
Promaucaes Promaucae, also spelled as ''Promaucas'' or ''Purumaucas'' (from Quechua ''purum awqa'': wild enemy), were an indigenous pre-Columbian Mapuche tribal group that lived in the present territory of Chile, south of the Maipo River basin of Santiago, Ch ...
and Picunches, fought unsuccessfully against Spanish conquest. Little is known about their resistance.Bengoa 2003, pp. 250–251. In 1550 Pedro de Valdivia, who aimed to control all of Chile to the Straits of Magellan, campaigned in south-central Chile to conquer more Mapuche territory.Villalobos ''et al''. 1974, pp. 98–99. Between 1550 and 1553 the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche lands including Concepción,
Valdivia Valdivia (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder Pedro de Valdivia and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and Cau-Ca ...
,
Imperial Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism. Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to: Places United States * Imperial, California * Imperial, Missouri * Imperial, Nebraska * Imperial, Pennsylvania * Imperial, Texas ...
, Villarrica and Angol. The Spanish also established the forts of Arauco, Purén and Tucapel. Further efforts by the Spanish to gain more territory engaged them in the Arauco War against the Mapuche, a sporadic conflict that lasted nearly 350 years. Hostility towards the conquerors was compounded by the lack of a tradition of
forced labour Forced labour, or unfree labour, is any work relation, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will with the threat of destitution, detention, violence including death, or other forms of ex ...
akin to the Inca mita among the Mapuche, who largely refused to serve the Spanish. From their establishment in 1550 to 1598, the Mapuche frequently laid siege to Spanish settlements in Araucanía. The war was mostly a low intensity conflict.Dillehay 2007, p. 335. Mapuche numbers decreased significantly following contact with the Spanish invaders; wars and
epidemic An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given population within an area in a short period of time. Epidemics of infectious ...
s decimated the population. Others died in Spanish owned gold mines.Bengoa 2003, pp. 252–253. In 1598 a party of warriors from Purén led by Pelantaro, who were returning south from a raid in
Chillán Chillán () is the capital city of the Ñuble Region in the Diguillín Province of Chile located about south of the country's capital, Santiago, near the geographical center of the country. It is the capital of the new Ñuble Region since 6 S ...
area, ambushed Martín García Óñez de Loyola and his troopsBengoa 2003, pp. 320–321. while they rested without taking any precautions against attack. Almost all the Spaniards died, save a cleric named Bartolomé Pérez, who was taken prisoner, and a soldier named Bernardo de Pereda. The Mapuche then initiated a general uprising which destroyed all the cities in their homeland south of the Biobío River. In the years following the Battle of Curalaba a general uprising developed among the Mapuches and Huilliches. The Spanish cities of Angol, Imperial, Osorno,
Santa Cruz de Oñez Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring children gifts during the late evening and overnigh ...
,
Valdivia Valdivia (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder Pedro de Valdivia and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and Cau-Ca ...
and Villarrica were either destroyed or abandoned.Villalobos et al. 1974, p. 109. Only
Chillán Chillán () is the capital city of the Ñuble Region in the Diguillín Province of Chile located about south of the country's capital, Santiago, near the geographical center of the country. It is the capital of the new Ñuble Region since 6 S ...
and Concepción resisted Mapuche sieges and raids.Bengoa 2003, pp. 324–325. With the exception of Chiloé Archipelago, all Chilean territory south of the Bíobío River was freed from Spanish rule. In this period the Mapuche Nation crossed the Andes to conquer the present Argentine provinces of Chubut, Neuquen, La Pampa and Río Negro.


Incorporation into Chile and Argentina

In the nineteenth century Chile experienced a fast territorial expansion. Chile established a colony at the
Strait of Magellan The Strait of Magellan (), also called the Straits of Magellan, is a navigable sea route in southern Chile separating mainland South America to the north and Tierra del Fuego to the south. The strait is considered the most important natural ...
in 1843, settled
Valdivia Valdivia (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder Pedro de Valdivia and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and Cau-Ca ...
, Osorno and Llanquihue with German immigrants and conquered land from Peru and Bolivia. Later Chile would also annex
Easter Island Easter Island ( rap, Rapa Nui; es, Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearl ...
. In this context Araucanía began to be conquered by Chile due to two reasons. First, the Chilean state aimed for territorial continuityPinto 2003, p. 153. and second it remained the sole place for Chilean agriculture to expand.Bengoa 2000, p. 156. Between 1861 and 1871 Chile incorporated several Mapuche territories in Araucanía. In January 1881, having decisively defeated Peru in the battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores, Chile resumed the conquest of Araucanía.Bengoa 2000, pp. 275–276.Ferrando 1986, p. 547Bengoa 2000, pp. 277–278. Historian Ward Churchill has claimed that the Mapuche population dropped from a total of half a million to 25,000 within a generation as result of the occupation and its associated famine and disease. The conquest of Araucanía caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food.Bengoa 2000, pp. 232–233. Scholar Pablo Miramán claims the introduction of state education during the Occupation of Araucanía had detrimental effects on traditional Mapuche education.Pinto 2003, p. 205. In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on
agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people ...
and wood extraction. The loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severe
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is d ...
since Mapuches continued to practice a massive livestock herding in limited areas.Bengoa 2000, pp. 262–263.


Modern conflict

Land disputes and violent confrontations continue in some Mapuche areas, particularly in the northern sections of the Araucanía region between and around
Traiguén Traiguén () is a Chilean city and commune in the Malleco Province, Araucanía Region. Demographics According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Traiguén spans an area of and has 19,534 inhabitants (9,734 men and 9,800 ...
and
Lumaco Lumaco is a town and commune in Malleco Province in the Araucanía Region of Chile. Its name in Mapudungun means "water of '' luma''". Lumaco is located to northeast of Temuco and from Angol. It shares a boundary to the north with the comm ...
. In 2003, the Commission for Historical Truth and New Treatments issued a report to defuse tensions calling for drastic changes in Chile's treatment of its indigenous people, more than 80% of whom are Mapuche. The recommendations included the formal recognition of political and "territorial" rights for indigenous peoples, as well as efforts to promote their cultural identities. Though Japanese and Swiss interests are active in the economy of Araucanía (), the two chief forestry companies are Chilean-owned. In the past, the firms have planted hundreds of thousands of hectares with non-native species such as Monterey pine,
Douglas fir The Douglas fir (''Pseudotsuga menziesii'') is an evergreen conifer species in the pine family, Pinaceae. It is native to western North America and is also known as Douglas-fir, Douglas spruce, Oregon pine, and Columbian pine. There are three v ...
s and
eucalyptus ''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae, including '' Corymbia'', they are commonly known as ...
trees, sometimes replacing native Valdivian forests, although such substitution and replacement is now forgotten. Chile exports wood to the United States, almost all of which comes from this southern region, with an annual value of around $600 million.
Stand.earth Stand.earth (formerly ForestEthics) is a grassroots environmental organization founded in 2000. The organization protects endangered forests by transforming corporate policy and governmental laws in the United States and Canada. Stand.earth uses p ...
, a conservation group, has led an international campaign for preservation, resulting in the
Home Depot The Home Depot, Inc., is an American multinational home improvement retail corporation that sells tools, construction products, appliances, and services, including fuel and transportation rentals. Home Depot is the largest home improvement re ...
chain and other leading wood importers agreeing to revise their purchasing policies to "provide for the protection of native forests in Chile". Some Mapuche leaders want stronger protections for the forests. In recent years, the crimes committed by Mapuche armed insurgents have been prosecuted under counter-terrorism legislation, originally introduced by the
military dictatorship A military dictatorship is a dictatorship in which the military exerts complete or substantial control over political authority, and the dictator is often a high-ranked military officer. The reverse situation is to have civilian control of the ...
of
Augusto Pinochet Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (, , , ; 25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006) was a Chilean general who ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990, first as the leader of the Military Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981, being declared President of ...
to control political dissidents. The law allows prosecutors to withhold evidence from the defense for up to six months and to conceal the identity of witnesses, who may give evidence in court behind screens. Insurgent groups, such as the
Coordinadora Arauco Malleco Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco (CAM) is a radical, militant indigenous organization engaged in political violence in pursuit of attaining an autonomous Mapuche state in the territory they describe as Wallmapu. Founded in 1998 in Tranaquepe, Chile, C ...
, use multiple tactics with the more extreme occurrences such as burning of homes, churches, vehicles, structures and pastures, which at times included causing deaths and threats to specific targets. As of 2005, protesters from Mapuche communities have used these tactics against properties of both multinational forestry corporations and private individuals. In 2010 the Mapuche launched a number of hunger strikes in attempts to effect change in the anti-terrorism legislation. As of 2019, the Chilean government committed human rights abuses against the Mapuche based on Israeli military techniques and surveillance according to the French website Orin21. Oil exploitation and fracking in the Vaca Muerta site in Neuquen, one of the biggest shale-oil and shale-gas deposits in the world, has produced waste dumps of sludge waste, polluting the environment close to the town of
Añelo Añelo is the second category municipality located in the Añelo Department in Neuquén Province, Argentina. Economy The economy of Añelo is based on agriculture. One of the most important crops are grapes as in the near town of San Patricio ...
, which is about 1,200km south of Buenos Aires. In 2018, the Mapuche were suing Exxon, French company
TotalEnergies TotalEnergies SE is a French multinational integrated energy and petroleum company founded in 1924 and one of the seven supermajor oil companies. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and ...
and
Pan American Energy Bridas Corporation is an Argentine independent oil and gas holding company based in Buenos Aires. Since March 2010 it is 50% owned by China National Offshore Oil Corporation. Operations Bridas Corporation was founded by the Bulgheroni family in ...
.


Culture

At the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Mapuche organized and constructed a network of forts and defensive buildings. Ancient Mapuche also built ceremonial constructions such as some earthwork
mound A mound is a heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. Most commonly, mounds are earthen formations such as hills and mountains, particularly if they appear artificial. A mound may be any rounded area of topographically highe ...
s recently discovered near Purén. Mapuche quickly adopted
iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in ...
metal-working ( Picunches already worked
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pink ...
) Mapuche learned horse riding and the use of
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in ...
in war from the
Spaniards Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ...
, along with the cultivation of
wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
and
sheep Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticate ...
. In the 300-year co-existence between the Spanish colonies and the relatively well-delineated autonomous Mapuche regions, the Mapuche also developed a strong tradition of trading with Spaniards, Argentines and Chileans. Such trade lies at the heart of the Mapuche silver-working tradition, for Mapuche wrought their jewelry from the large and widely dispersed quantity of Spanish, Argentine and Chilean silver coins. Mapuche also made headdresses with
coins A coin is a small, flat (usually depending on the country or value), round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order t ...
, which were called ''trarilonko,'' etc.


Mapuche languages

Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are
Huilliche The Huilliche , Huiliche or Huilliche-Mapuche are the southern partiality of the Mapuche macroethnic group of Chile. Located in the Zona Sur, they inhabit both Futahuillimapu ("great land of the south") and, as the Cunco subgroup, the north ha ...
and
Mapudungun Mapuche (, Mapuche & Spanish: , or Mapudungun; from ' 'land' and ' 'speak, speech') is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people (from ''mapu'' 'land' and ''che ...
. Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua. Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full-fluency speakers remain in Chile. The language receives only token support in the educational system. In recent years, it has started to be taught in rural schools of Bío-Bío, Araucanía and Los Lagos Regions. Mapuche speakers of
Chilean Spanish Chilean Spanish ( es, español chileno) is any of several varieties of the Spanish language spoken in most of Chile. Chilean Spanish dialects have distinctive pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and slang usages that differ from those of Sta ...
who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish.


Cosmology and beliefs

Central to Mapuche cosmology is the idea of a creator called , who is embodied in four components: an older man (), an older woman (), a young man and a young woman. They believe in worlds known as the and . Also, Mapuche cosmology is informed by complex notions of spirits that coexist with humans and animals in the natural world, and daily circumstances can dictate spiritual practices. The most well-known Mapuche ritual ceremony is the , which loosely translates "to pray" or "general prayer". These ceremonies are often major communal events that are of extreme spiritual and social importance. Many other ceremonies are practiced, and not all are for public or communal participation but are sometimes limited to family. The main groups of deities and/or spirits in Mapuche mythology are the and (ancestral spirits), the (spirits in nature), and the (evil spirits). Central to Mapuche
belief A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to tak ...
is the role of the (shaman). It is usually filled by a woman, following an apprenticeship with an older machi, and has many of the characteristics typical of
shaman Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spir ...
s. The machi performs ceremonies for curing diseases, warding off evil, influencing weather, harvests, social interactions and
dreamwork Dreamwork differs from classical dream interpretation in that the aim is to explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes, while not attempting to come up with a unique dream meaning. In this way the dream remains " ...
. Machis often have extensive knowledge of regional
medicinal herbs Medicinal plants, also called medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Plants synthesize hundreds of chemical compounds for various functions, including defense and protection ag ...
. As biodiversity in the Chilean countryside has declined due to commercial agriculture and forestry, the dissemination of such knowledge has also declined, but the Mapuche people are reviving it in their communities. Machis have an extensive knowledge of sacred stones and the sacred animals. Like many cultures, the Mapuche have a deluge myth () of a major flood in which the world is destroyed and recreated. The myth involves two opposing forces: (water, which brings death through floods) and (dry earth, which brings sunshine). In the deluge almost all humanity is drowned; the few not drowned survive through
cannibalism Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well documented, b ...
. At last only one couple is left. A machi tells them that they must give their only child to the waters, which they do, and this restores order to the world. Part of Mapuche ritual is prayer and animal sacrifice, required to maintain the cosmic balance. This belief has continued to current times. In 1960, for example, a machi sacrificed a young boy, throwing him into the water after an earthquake and a tsunami. The Mapuche have incorporated the remembered history of their long independence and resistance from 1540 (Spanish and then Chileans and Argentines), and of the treaty with the Chilean and Argentine government in the 1870s. Memories, stories, and beliefs, often very local and particularized, are a significant part of the Mapuche traditional culture. To varying degrees, this history of resistance continues to this day amongst the Mapuche. At the same time, a large majority of Mapuche in Chile identify with the state as Chilean, similar to a large majority in Argentina identifying as Argentines.


Ethnobotany


Ceremonies and traditions

is the Mapuche
New Year New Year is the time or day currently at which a new calendar year begins and the calendar's year count increments by one. Many cultures celebrate the event in some manner. In the Gregorian calendar, the most widely used calendar system ...
celebration.


Textiles

One of the best-known arts of the Mapuche is their
textiles Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
. The oldest data on textiles in the southernmost areas of the American continent (southern Chile and Argentina today) are found in some
archaeological Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
excavations, such as those of Pitrén Cemetery near the city of
Temuco Temuco () is a List of cities in Chile, city and Communes of Chile, commune, capital (political), capital of the Cautín Province and of the Araucanía Region in southern Chile. The city is located south of Santiago de Chile, Santiago. The city ...
, and the Alboyanco site in the
Biobío Region The Biobío Region ( es, Región del Biobío ), is one of Chile's sixteen regions (first-order administrative divisions). With a population of 1.5 million, thus being the third most populated region in Chile, it is divided into three provinces ...
, both of Chile; and the Rebolledo Arriba Cemetery in
Neuquén Province Neuquén () is a province of Argentina, located in the west of the country, at the northern end of Patagonia. It borders Mendoza Province to the north, Rio Negro Province to the southeast, and Chile to the west. It also meets La Pampa Provinc ...
(Argentina). researchers have found evidence of fabrics made with complex techniques and designs, dated to between AD 1300–1350. The Mapuche women were responsible for spinning and weaving. Knowledge of both weaving techniques and textile patterns particular to the locality were usually transmitted within the family, with mothers, grandmothers, and aunts teaching a girl the skills they had learned from their own elders. Women who excelled in the textile arts were highly honored for their accomplishments and contributed economically and culturally to their kinship group. A measure of the importance of weaving is evident in the expectation that a man give a larger
dowry A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment ...
for a bride who was an accomplished weaver.Wilson, 1992; Mendez, 2009a. In addition, the Mapuche used their textiles as an important surplus and an exchange trading good. Numerous sixteenth-century accounts describe their bartering the textiles with other indigenous peoples, and with colonists in newly developed settlements. Such trading enabled the Mapuche to obtain those goods that they did not produce or held in high esteem, such as horses. Tissue volumes made by Aboriginal women and marketed in the Araucanía and the north of the Patagonia Argentina were really considerable and constitute a vital economic resource for indigenous families. The production of fabrics in the time before European settlement was clearly intended for uses beyond domestic consumption. At present, the fabrics woven by the Mapuche continue to be used for domestic purposes, as well as for gift, sale or barter. Most Mapuche women and their families now wear garments with foreign designs and tailored with materials of industrial origin, but they continue to weave ponchos, blankets, bands and belts for regular use. Many of the fabrics are woven for trade, and in many cases, are an important source of income for families. Glazed pots are used to dye the wool. Many Mapuche women continue to weave fabrics according to the customs of their ancestors and transmit their knowledge in the same way: within domestic life, from mother to daughter, and from grandmothers to granddaughters. This form of learning is based on gestural imitation, and only rarely, and when strictly necessary, the apprentice receives explicit instructions or help from their instructors. Knowledge is transmitted as fabric is woven, the weaving and transmission of knowledge go together.


Clava hand-club

There is a traditional stone hand-club used by the Mapuche which has been called a (Spanish for club). It has a long flat body. Another name is ; in Spanish, it may also be called a . It has some ritual importance as a special sign of distinction carried by tribal chiefs. Many kinds of clubs are known. This is an object associated with masculine power. It consists of a disk with attached handle; the edge of the disc usually has a semicircular recess. In many cases, the face portrayed on the disc carries incised designs. The handle is cylindrical, generally with a larger diameter at its connection to the disk.


Silverwork

In the later half of the eighteenth century Mapuche silversmiths began to produce large amounts of silver finery. The surge of silversmithing activity may be related to the 1726 parliament of Negrete that decreased hostilities between Spaniards and Mapuches and allowed trade to increase between colonial Chile and the free Mapuches. In this context of increasing trade Mapuches began in the late eighteenth century to accept payments in silver coins for their products, usually cattle or horses. These coins and silver coins obtained in political negotiations served as raw material for Mapuche metalsmiths ( arn, rüxafe). Old Mapuche silver
pendant A pendant is a loose-hanging piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace, which may be known as a "pendant necklace". A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down. Its name stems from the Latin word ' ...
s often included unmelted silver coins, something that has helped modern researchers to date the objects. The bulk of the Spanish silver coins originated from mining in
Potosí Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
in
Upper Peru Upper Peru (; ) is a name for the land that was governed by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. The name originated in Buenos Aires towards the end of the 18th century after the Audiencia of Charcas was transferred from the Viceroyalty of Peru to t ...
.Painecura 2012, pp. 25–26. The great diversity in silver finery designs is due to the fact that designs were made to be identified with different (families), (lands) as well as specific and .Painecura 2012, pp. 27–28. Mapuche silver finery was also subject to changes in
fashion Fashion is a form of self-expression and autonomy at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture. The term implies a look defined by the fash ...
albeit designs associated with philosophical and spiritual concepts have not undergone major changes. In the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Mapuche silversmithing activity and artistic diversity reached its climax.Painecura 2012, p. 30. All important Mapuche chiefs of the nineteenth century are supposed to have had at least one silversmith. By 1984 Mapuche scholar Carlos Aldunate noted that there were no silversmiths alive among contemporary Mapuches.


Literature

The Mapuche culture of the sixteenth century had an
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and Culture, cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Traditio ...
and lacked a writing system. Since that time, a writing system for Mapudungun was developed, and Mapuche writings in both Spanish and
Mapudungun Mapuche (, Mapuche & Spanish: , or Mapudungun; from ' 'land' and ' 'speak, speech') is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people (from ''mapu'' 'land' and ''che ...
have flourished.Carrasco, I. 2000
"Mapuche poets in Chilean literature"
''
Estudios Filológicos ''Estudios Filológicos'' is an academic journal published by the Humanities and Philosophy Faculty of the Southern University of Chile. It covers a wide range of linguistics and literature-related topics, primarily on issues that are relevant to ...
'', 35, 139–149.
Contemporary Mapuche literature can be said to be composed of an oral tradition and Spanish-Mapudungun bilingual writings. Notable Mapuche
poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or w ...
s include Sebastián Queupul, Pedro Alonzo,
Elicura Chihuailaf Elicura Chihuailaf Nahuelpán (, 1952 in Quechurehue, Cautín Province) is a Mapuche Chilean poet and author whose works are written both in Mapudungun and in Spanish, and have been translated into many other languages as well. He has also transl ...
and Leonel Lienlaf.


Cogender views

Among the Mapuche in La Araucanía, in addition to heterosexual female shamanesses, there are homosexual male shamans, who wear female clothing. These were first described in Spanish in a chronicle of 1673. Among the Mapuche, "the spirits are interested in machi's gendered discourses and performances, not in the sex under the machi's clothes". In attracting the (possessing-spirit), "Both male and female become spiritual brides who seduce and call their – at once husband and master – to possess their heads ... The ritual transvestism of male ... draws attention to the relational gender categories of spirit husband and wife as a couple ()." As concerning "co-gendered identities" of " as co-gender specialists", it has been speculated that "female berdaches" may have formerly existed among the Mapuche.


Mapuche, Chileans and the Chilean state

Following the independence of Chile in the 1810s, the Mapuche began to be perceived as Chilean by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as a separate people or nation.Foerster, Rolf 2001. ''Sociedad mapuche y sociedad chilena: la deuda histórica.'' Polis, Revista de la Universidad Bolivariana. However, not everybody agreed; 19th-century Argentine writer and president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento presented his view of the Mapuche-Chile relation by stating:


Civilizing mission discourses and scientific racism

The events surrounding the wreck of ''Joven Daniel'' at the coast of Araucanía in 1849 are considered an "inflexion point" or "point of no return" in the relations between Mapuches and the Chilean state. It cemented views of Mapuches as brutal barbarians and showed in the view of many that Chilean authorities' earlier goodwill was naive.Bengoa 2000, pp. 163–165. There are various recorded instances in the nineteenth century when Mapuches were the subject of civilizing mission discourses by elements of Chilean government and military. For example,
Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez (1821 – April 7, 1891) was a Chilean politician and military figure who played a major role in the Occupation of the Araucanía. His parents were Manuel Saavedra Cabrera, son of the president of the First Governme ...
called in 1861 for Mapuches to submit to Chilean state authority and "enter into reduction and civilization". When the Mapuches were finally defeated in 1883 president Domingo Santa María declared: After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883) there was a rise of racial and national superiority ideas among the Chilean ruling class. It was in this context that Chilean physician Nicolás Palacios hailed the Mapuche "race" arguing from a scientific racist and nationalist point of view. He considered the Mapuche superior to other tribes and the Chilean
mestizo (; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though thei ...
a blend of Mapuches and
Visigothic The Visigoths (; la, Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, Wisi) were an early Germanic people who, along with the Ostrogoths, constituted the two major political entities of the Goths within the Roman Empire in late antiquity, or what is ...
elements from Spain. The writings of Palacios became later influential among
Chilean Nazis Chilean may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Chile, a country in South America * Chilean people * Chilean Spanish * Chilean culture * Chilean cuisine * Chilean Americans See also *List of Chileans This is a list of Chileans who ar ...
. As result of the Occupation of Araucanía (1861–1883) and the War of the Pacific, Chile had incorporated territories with new indigenous populations. Mapuches obtained relatively favourable views as "primordial" Chileans contrasting with other indigenous peoples like the Aymara who were perceived as "foreign elements".


Contemporary attitudes

Contemporary attitudes towards Mapuches on the part of non-indigenous people in Chile are highly individual and heterogeneous. Nevertheless, a considerable part of the non-indigenous people in Chile have a prejudiced and discriminatory attitude towards Mapuche. In a 2003 study it was found that among the sample 41% of people over 60 years old, 35% of people of low
socio-economic Socioeconomics (also known as social economics) is the social science that studies how economic activity affects and is shaped by social processes. In general it analyzes how modern societies progress, stagnate, or regress because of their loc ...
standing, 35% of the supporters of right-wing parties, 36% of Protestants and 26% of Catholics were prejudiced against indigenous peoples in Chile. In contrast, only 8% of those who attended university, 16% of supporters of left-wing parties and 19% of people aged 18–29 were prejudiced. Specific prejudices about the Mapuche are that the Mapuches are lazy and alcoholic; to some lesser degree Mapuche are sometimes judged antiquated and dirty. In the 20th century many Mapuche women migrated to large cities to work as domestic workers ( es, nanas mapuches). In Santiago many of these women settled in
Cerro Navia Cerro Navia (Spanish for "Navia Hill") is a commune of Chile located in Santiago Province, Santiago Metropolitan Region. It is one of the most densely populated communes of Santiago, Chile. History Officially established on March 17, 1981, it ...
and
La Pintana La Pintana is a commune of Chile located in Santiago Province, Santiago Metropolitan Region. La Pintana is home to Antumapu, the agricultural and veterinary sciences campus of University of Chile, Chile's oldest university. Demographics Accordi ...
. Sociologist Éric Fassin has called the occurrence of Mapuche domestic workers a continuation of colonial relations of servitude. Historian Gonzalo Vial claimed that the Republic of Chile owes a "historical debt" to the Mapuche. The Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco claims to have the goal of a "national liberation" of Mapuche, with their regaining sovereignty over their own lands. Reportedly there is a tendency among female Mapuche activists to reject
feminism Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...
as they consider their struggle to go beyond gender.


Mapuches and the Argentine state

19th-century Argentine authorities aiming to incorporate the Pampas and Patagonia into national territory recognized the Puelmapu Mapuche's strong connections with Chile. This gave Chile a certain influence over the Pampas. Argentine authorities feared that in an eventual war with Chile over Patagonia, Mapuches would align themselves with Chile. In this context
Estanislao Zeballos Estanislao Severo Zeballos (27 July 1854 - 4 October 1923) was an Argentine lawyer and politician who was Minister of Foreign Affairs of his country three times. He was one of the most prominent intellectuals and politicians of his time. He wr ...
published the work (''The Fifteen Thousand League Conquest'') in 1878, which had been commissioned by the Argentine Ministry of War. In Mapuches were presented as Chileans who were bound to return to Chile. Mapuches were thus indirectly considered foreign enemies. Such notion fitted well with the expansionist designs of Nicolás Avellaneda and Julio Argentino Roca for Puelmapu. The notion of Mapuches as Chileans is however an anachronism as Mapuches precede the formation of the modern state of Chile. By 1920 Argentine revived the idea of Mapuches being Chileans, in strong contrast with 20th century scholars based in Chile such as Ricardo E. Latcham and
Francisco Antonio Encina Francisco Antonio Encina Armanet (September 10, 1874, San Javier – August 23, 1965, Santiago) was a Chilean politician, agricultural businessman, political essayist, historian and prominent white nationalist. He authored the ''History of Chi ...
who advanced a theory that Mapuches originated east of the Andes before penetrating into what came to be Chile. As late as 2017 Argentine historian Roberto E. Porcel wrote in a communiqué to the National Academy of History that those who often claim to be Mapuches in Argentina would be rather
Mestizo (; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though thei ...
s, emboldened by European-descent supporters, who "lack any right for their claims and violence, not only for NOT being most of them Araucanians ic but also because they
he Araucanians He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...
do not rank among our indigenous peoples".


Modern politics

In the 2017 Chilean general election, the first two Mapuche women were elected to the Chilean Congress; Aracely Leuquén Uribe from National Renewal and Emilia Nuyado from the
Socialist Party Socialist Party is the name of many different political parties around the world. All of these parties claim to uphold some form of socialism, though they may have very different interpretations of what "socialism" means. Statistically, most of ...
.


In popular culture

* In 2012, renowned Mapuche weaver Anita Paillamil collaborated with Chilean artist Guillermo Bert to create "Encoded Textiles," an exhibit that combined traditional mapuche textile weaving with
QR Code A QR code (an initialism for quick response code) is a type of matrix barcode (or two-dimensional barcode) invented in 1994 by the Japanese company Denso Wave. A barcode is a machine-readable optical label that can contain information about t ...
designs. * The 2020 Chilean-Brazilian animated film '' Nahuel and the Magic Book'' features a major characters, Fresia and Huenchur who represents her clothing attire and her tribe. * The 4X video game ''
Civilization VI ''Sid Meier's Civilization VI'' is a turn-based strategy 4X video game developed by Firaxis Games, published by 2K Games, and distributed by Take-Two Interactive. The mobile port was published by Aspyr Media. The latest entry into the ''Civili ...
'' features the Mapuche as a playable civilization (added in the ''Rise and Fall'' expansion). Their leader is Lautaro, a young Mapuche toqui known for leading the indigenous resistance against Spanish conquest in
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...
and developing the tactics that would continue to be employed by the Mapuche during the long-running ArauIsab. * The novel "Inez of my Soul" by Isabel Allende features the conquest of Chile by Pedro Valdivia, and a large part of the book deals with the Mapuche Conflict. * The plot of the 2021 Chilean thriller film " Immersion" is a power struggle between a vacationing family and three Mapuche men.


See also

*
Guaraní people Guarani are a group of culturally-related indigenous peoples of South America. They are distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guarani language. The traditional range of the Guarani people is in present-day Paraguay between the ...
* Flag of the Mapuches ** Guñelve


Notes


References


Bibliography

* Alvarado, Margarita (2002) "El esplendor del adorno: El poncho y el chanuntuku” En: ''Hijos del Viento, Arte de los Pueblos del Sur, Siglo XIX.'' Buenos Aires: Fundación PROA. * * Brugnoli, Paulina y Hoces de la Guardia, Soledad (1995). "Estudio de fragmentos del sitio Alboyanco". En: ''Hombre y Desierto, una perspectiva cultural'', 9: 375–381. * Corcuera, Ruth (1987). ''Herencia textil andina''. Buenos Aires: Impresores SCA. * Corcuera, Ruth (1998). ''Ponchos de las Tierras del Plata''. Buenos Aires: Fondo Nacional de las Artes. * Chertudi, Susana y Nardi, Ricardo (1961). "Tejidos Araucanos de la Argentina". En: ''Cuadernos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Folklóricas'', 2: 97–182. * Garavaglia, Juan Carlos (1986). “Los textiles de la tierra en el contexto colonial rioplatense: ¿una revolución industrial fallida?”. En: ''Anuario IEHS'', 1:45–87. * Joseph, Claude (1931). ''Los tejidos Araucanos''. Santiago de Chile: Imprenta San Francisco, Padre Las Casas. * Kradolfer, Sabine, ''Quand la parenté impose, le don dispose. Organisation sociale, don et identité dans les communautés mapuche de la province de Neuquén (Argentine)'' (Bern etc., Peter Lang, 2011) (Publications Universitaires Européennes. Série 19 B: Ethnologie-générale, 71). * Mendez, Patricia (2009a). “Herencia textil, identidad indígena y recursos económicos en la Patagonia Argentina”. En: ''Revista de la Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red'', 4, 1:11–53. * Méndez, Patricia (2009b). “Los tejidos indígenas en la Patagonia Argentina: cuatro siglos de comercio textilI”. En: ''Anuario INDIANA'', 26: 233–265. * Millán de Palavecino, María Delia (1960). “Vestimenta Argentina”. En: ''Cuadernos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Folklóricas'', 1: 95–127. * Murra, John (1975). ''Formaciones económicas y políticas del mundo andino.'' Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. * Nardi, Ricardo y Rolandi, Diana (1978). ''1000 años de tejido en la Argentina''. Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Cultura y Educación, Secretaría de Estado de Cultura, Instituto Nacional de Antropología. * * Palermo, Miguel Angel (1994). "Economía y mujer en el sur argentino". En: ''Memoria Americana'' 3: 63–90. * Wilson, Angélica (1992). ''Arte de Mujeres''. Santiago de Chile: Ed. CEDEM, Colección Artes y Oficios Nº 3.


Further reading


Nicholas Jose Reviews ''Speaking the Earth’s Languages: A Theory for Australian-Chilean Postcolonial Poetics''
: ''Cordite Poetry Review'', 2014
Fogarty & Garrido: A Bilingual Conversation between Four Poems
: ''Cordite Poetry Review'', 2012
Trilingual Visibility in Our Transpacific: Three Mapuche Poets
: ''Cordite Poetry Review'', 2012 *''Language of the Land : The Mapuche in Argentina and Chile''
IWGIA - IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs
2007, *''When a flower is reborn : The Life and Times of a Mapuche Feminist'', 2002, *''Courage Tastes of Blood : The Mapuche Community of Nicolás Ailío and the Chilean State, 1906–2001'', 2005, *''Neoliberal Economics, Democratic Transition, and Mapuche Demands for Rights in Chile'', 2006, *''Shamans of the Foye Tree : Gender, Power, and Healing among Chilean Mapuche'', 2007, *''A Grammar of Mapuche'', 2007, * * *Eim, Stefan (2010). ''The Conceptualisation of Mapuche Religion in Colonial Chile (1545–1787)'': http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/2010/10717/pdf/Eim_Conceptualisation_of_Mapuche_Religion.pdf. *Faron, Louis (1961). ''Mapuche Social Structure, Illinois Studies in Anthropology'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press).


External links


Mapuche International Link official website



Rehue Foundation in Netherland



Mapuche Health

Website of the Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia


{{DEFAULTSORT:Mapuche Indigenous culture of the Americas Indigenous peoples of the Southern Cone Society of Chile Indigenous peoples in Argentina Indigenous peoples in Chile Pre-Columbian cultures Ethnic groups in Chile