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The Manitoba Schools Question () was a political crisis in the Canadian province of
Manitoba Manitoba ( ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population o ...
that occurred late in the 19th century, attacking publicly-funded
separate school In Canada, a separate school is a type of school that has constitutional status in three provinces (Ontario, Alberta and Saskatchewan) and statutory status in the three territories (Northwest Territories, Yukon and Nunavut). In these Canadian ...
s for
Roman Catholics The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
and
Protestants Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
. The crisis was precipitated by a series of provincial laws passed between 1890 and 1896, and another passed in 1916. The crisis eventually spread to the national level, becoming one of the key issues in the federal election of 1896 and resulted in the defeat of the Conservative government, which had been in power for most of the previous thirty years. Because of the close linkage at that time between religion and language, the Schools Question raised the deeper question whether
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
would survive as a language or a culture in
Western Canada Western Canada, also referred to as the Western provinces, Canadian West or the Western provinces of Canada, and commonly known within Canada as the West, is a Canadian region that includes the four western provinces just north of the Canada� ...
. The result of the crisis was that, by 1916, English was left as the only official language in use in the province until 1985. As French was no longer an official language, its use declined greatly. Moreover, the Schools Question, along with the execution of
Louis Riel Louis Riel (; ; 22 October 1844 – 16 November 1885) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people. He led two resistance movements against the Government of Canada and its first ...
in 1885, was one of the incidents that led to strengthening of
French Canadian nationalism Quebec nationalism or Québécois nationalism is a feeling and a political doctrine that prioritizes cultural belonging to, the defence of the interests of, and the recognition of the political legitimacy of the Québécois nation. It has been ...
in Quebec.


Background


Foundation of Manitoba (1870)

Manitoba became the first western province to join
Confederation A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical iss ...
in 1870. The province was created through negotiations between Canada and the provisional Red River government of
Louis Riel Louis Riel (; ; 22 October 1844 – 16 November 1885) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people. He led two resistance movements against the Government of Canada and its first ...
, following the Red River Resistance/Rebellion. One of the key issues in the negotiations was the question of control of education in the new province. There was considerable pressure for a system of denominational schools in the new province, for both Protestants and Roman Catholics. Although framed as a religious issue, there was also a question of language-politics involved, since at that time, most Protestants in Manitoba were
anglophones Speakers of English are also known as Anglophones, and the countries where English is natively spoken by the majority of the population are termed the ''Anglosphere''. Over two billion people speak English , making English the largest language ...
and most Roman Catholics were francophones. Religious control over education thus also related to the language of education. The Act of Parliament that created the province, the '' Manitoba Act'', responded to these concerns by giving the province the power to pass laws relating to education, but also by giving constitutional protection to denominational school rights which existed "by Law or practice in the Province at the Union." The exact meaning of this provision, and the scope of the constitutional protection it provided, subsequently became a matter of considerable political and legal debate.


Political and demographic developments (1870–90)

Soon after the ''Manitoba Act'' was passed to create the province, settlers from
English Canada Canada comprises that part of the population within Canada, whether of British origin or otherwise, that speaks English. The term ''English Canada'' can also be used for one of the following: #Describing all the provinces of Canada tha ...
, mainly
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...
, began to arrive in greater numbers than they had come prior to the
Red River Rebellion The Red River Rebellion (french: Rébellion de la rivière Rouge), also known as the Red River Resistance, Red River uprising, or First Riel Rebellion, was the sequence of events that led up to the 1869 establishment of a provisional government by ...
(which was, in part, a reaction against them). The ''Manitoba Act'' had given equal rights to
Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
and
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD * Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
schools, but by the 1880s, this no longer reflected the linguistic makeup of the province. Many
Métis The Métis ( ; Canadian ) are Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous peoples who inhabit Canada's three Canadian Prairies, Prairie Provinces, as well as parts of British Columbia, the Northwest Territories, and the Northern United State ...
had left, and settlers from
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirte ...
were not as numerous as those from Ontario. As the
Canadian Pacific Railway The Canadian Pacific Railway (french: Chemin de fer Canadien Pacifique) , also known simply as CPR or Canadian Pacific and formerly as CP Rail (1968–1996), is a Canadian Class I railway incorporated in 1881. The railway is owned by Canad ...
was completed in 1886, many more English-speaking settlers had begun to arrive.


Manitoba legislation (1890–94)

The Manitoba schools crisis was precipitated by a series of provincial laws passed between 1890 and 1896 and another passed in 1916. The '' Manitoba Act'' of 1870 had provided that English and French be co-official languages in the newly created Province of Manitoba (which initially included only part of southern Manitoba centred on the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine rivers). However, in March 1890, the
Manitoba Legislature The Legislature of Manitoba is the legislature of the province of Manitoba, Canada. Today, the legislature is made of two elements: the King of Canada in Right of Manitoba, represented by the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba, and the unicameral ...
passed the ''Official Language Act'', making English the only official language in the province.Verrette, Michel. February 07, 2006.
Manitoba Schools Question
" ''The Canadian Encyclopedia''. Historica Canada (last updated June 01, 2016).
Two years later, in 1892, the neighbouring
Northwest Territories The Northwest Territories (abbreviated ''NT'' or ''NWT''; french: Territoires du Nord-Ouest, formerly ''North-Western Territory'' and ''North-West Territories'' and namely shortened as ''Northwest Territory'') is a federal territory of Canada. ...
(which at the time covered the
Canadian Prairies The Canadian Prairies (usually referred to as simply the Prairies in Canada) is a region in Western Canada. It includes the Canadian portion of the Great Plains and the Prairie Provinces, namely Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. These provin ...
west and northwest of Manitoba) also abolished French as an official language. Although the abolition of French as an official language did not directly affect the Schools Question, it strengthened the controversy, given the ties between religious schools and the language of education. When the Province was created, the new provincial government established a system of denominational schools funded by provincial taxes. However, in the same month as the ''Official Language Act'', the Manitoba Legislature passed two bills amending the province’s laws on education: ''An Act respecting the Department of Education'' and ''An Act respecting Public Schools'' (or, the '' Public Schools Act''). The ''Department of Education'' ''Act'' created a Department of Education and turned the two sections of the Board of Education into only one. The ''Public Schools Act'' divested funding for Catholic and Protestant denominational schools, establishing instead a system of tax-supported, non-sectarian public schools. In other words, the Act removed the denominational school districts, and in doing so, the French language remained while the Catholic religion did not. If Catholics (mostly francophone) wished to continue education in their religion, they would now have to fund their own schools, in addition to paying taxes for public schools. Passing this legislation was the response of Premier
Thomas Greenway Thomas Greenway (March 25, 1838 – October 30, 1908) was a Canadian politician, merchant and farmer. He served as the seventh premier of Manitoba from 1888 to 1900. A Liberal, his ministry formally ended Manitoba's non-partisan government, al ...
to the popular demand to abolish Manitoba's dual-school system, as many claimed that Catholics were receiving more funds from the province than their numbers warranted and that the quality of education in Catholic schools was poor. The question was whether this legislation was consistent with s. 22(1) of the '' Manitoba Act''. In 1894, Greenway's government also prohibited municipalities from making expenditures to assist schools outside of the public system. As Catholic parents were limited in their ability to pay for their children’s schooling, this prohibition would ultimately result in the reduction in the number of Catholic schools. While the great majority of these schools maintained their Catholic and private status, many were forced to join the public system. For French-speaking Catholics, the issue of religious education became an issue of identity. Two rounds of litigation were the result, in each case going to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is the highest court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies, the British Overseas Territories, some Commonwealth countries and a few institutions in the United Kingdom. Established on 14 Aug ...
, at that time the highest court in the
British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts e ...
. The legislation also triggered considerable national political debate.


Initial crisis (1891–96)


Litigations

Manitoba's legislation resulted in two rounds of litigation, each going to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is the highest court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies, the British Overseas Territories, some Commonwealth countries and a few institutions in the United Kingdom. Established on 14 Aug ...
.


City of Winnipeg (1891–92)

The first court case, ''Barrett v. City of Winnipeg'' (1891), focused on whether the '' Public Schools Act'' conflicted with the constitutional protection for denominational schools set out in s. 22 of the 1870 '' Manitoba Act''. Catholics in Manitoba, encouraged by the federal government of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, challenged the constitutionality of the 1890 Act in the Queen's Bench of Manitoba, arguing that the requirement to pay taxes to the new public school interfered with their rights under s. 22. The Manitoba Queen's Bench held that the new ''Public Schools Act'' was valid.''Barrett v. City of Winnipeg'' (1891), 7 Man. L.R. 273 (Q.B.); application dismissed by a single judge in chambers (Killam J.), at p. 282; appeal to the Queen's Bench ''
en banc In law, an en banc session (; French for "in bench"; also known as ''in banc'', ''in banco'' or ''in bank'') is a session in which a case is heard before all the judges of a court (before the entire bench) rather than by one judge or a smaller p ...
'' dismissed and statute upheld, at p. 308.
The challengers then appealed to the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; french: Cour suprême du Canada, CSC) is the Supreme court, highest court in the Court system of Canada, judicial system of Canada. It comprises List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, nine justices, wh ...
in ''Barrett v. Winnipeg'' (1891), which allowed the appeal and held that the 1890 ''Public Schools Act'' "transgresses the limits of the power given" by s. 22 of the ''Manitoba Act''. Based on the Supreme Court decision, another action was brought in the Manitoba Queen's Bench, which followed the Supreme Court decision and quashed a school tax assessment under the 1890 Act. The City of Winnipeg then appealed both cases to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is the highest court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies, the British Overseas Territories, some Commonwealth countries and a few institutions in the United Kingdom. Established on 14 Aug ...
in
Britain Britain most often refers to: * The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands * Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
which overruled the Supreme Court and held that the 1890 Act was consistent with the ''Manitoba Act''. The exact point in dispute was the meaning of the phrase "...by Law or practice in the Province at the Union," used in s. 22(1) of the ''Manitoba Act.'' The Judicial Committee held that this provision did not itself create a system of denominational schools. Rather, it gave constitutional protection to whatever rights existed with respect to denominational schools in Manitoba in 1870. The Judicial Committee reviewed the historical record and concluded that in 1870, all schools in Manitoba were funded by the religious groups which ran them, and not by any system of public taxation. As a result, the Judicial Committee concluded that s. 22(1) simply guaranteed the right of religious groups to establish and run their own schools, at their own expense. It did not guarantee any public funding for denominational schools, since there was no financial tax support for denominational schools in 1870. Taxpayer funding for denominational schools was only established after the foundation of the Province and was not guaranteed by s. 22(1) of the ''Manitoba Act, 1870.'' The Legislature therefore could end taxpayer funding for denominational schools and instead establishing a system of taxpayer funded non-sectarian schools, without being in breach of s. 22(1).


''Brophy v. Manitoba'' (1894)

Although education is normally a matter of exclusive provincial jurisdiction under the
Constitution of Canada The Constitution of Canada (french: Constitution du Canada) is the supreme law in Canada. It outlines Canada's system of government and the civil and human rights of those who are citizens of Canada and non-citizens in Canada. Its contents a ...
, there is a special power for the federal government in relation to separate schools. Section 93(3) of the ''
Constitution Act, 1867 The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (french: Loi constitutionnelle de 1867),''The Constitution Act, 1867'', 30 & 31 Victoria (U.K.), c. 3, http://canlii.ca/t/ldsw retrieved on 2019-03-14. originally enacted as the ''British North America Act, 186 ...
'' provides that there is an appeal to the Governor General in Council "from any Act or Decision of any Provincial Authority affecting any Right or Privilege of the Protestant or Roman Catholic Minority of the Queen's Subjects in relation to Education." Section 93(4) provides that if a province does not comply with a decision of the Governor-in-Council in an appeal under s. 93(3), then Parliament has the power to enact "remedial Laws for the due Execution of the Provisions of this Section and of any Decision of the Governor General in Council under this Section." Section 22 of the ''Manitoba Act'' had similar provisions authorising an appeal to the Governor General in Council and remedial legislation by Parliament. Following the 1892 Privy Council decision in ''City of Winnipeg v. Barrett'', pressure arose for the federal government to take action under these provisions. However, it was not clear if the changes to the Manitoba school system set out by the 1890 '' Public Schools Act'' were sufficient to authorise the federal government to hear an appeal and to enact remedial legislation, in light of the Privy Council's conclusion that the system of taxpayer funded denominational schools which were established in the early 1870s was not constitutionally protected. To resolve this uncertainty, the federal government referred the matter to the Supreme Court of Canada as a
reference question In Canadian law, a reference question or reference case (formally called abstract review) is a submission by the federal or a provincial government to the courts asking for an advisory opinion on a major legal issue. Typically the question conc ...
, asking if these constitutional provisions applied. The Supreme Court held that those provisions did not apply, since the post-1870 denominational schools were not constitutionally protected. This decision was appealed to the Privy Council, which overturned the Supreme Court. The Privy Council held that when the Province had created a system of taxpayer funded denominational schools in the early 1870s, it had given a "right or privilege" to the Protestants and Roman Catholics in relation to education. Although that "right or privilege" was not constitutionally entrenched by s. 22(1) of the ''Manitoba Act'', the abolition of the denominational schools could be appealed to the federal government under s. 22(2) of the ''Manitoba Act'', and Parliament could enact remedial legislation under s. 22(3).


Political crisis in the Federal government (1894–96)

The "Schools Question", as it was known, had divided the
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization in ...
government since 1890, and especially after Macdonald's death in 1891 when no strong leader replaced him. However, so long as education remained an exclusively provincial jurisdiction, the federal government had limited powers to intervene. In light of the Privy Council decision in ''Brophy v. Manitoba'', the political situation changed. The federal government now had the authority to act; the question was whether it would. In January 1896, the federal government of Prime Minister
Mackenzie Bowell Sir Mackenzie Bowell (; December 27, 1823 – December 10, 1917) was a Canadian newspaper publisher and politician, who served as the fifth prime minister of Canada, in office from 1894 to 1896. Bowell was born in Rickinghall, Suffolk, ...
introduced remedial legislation under s. 22(3) of the ''
Manitoba Act, 1870 The ''Manitoba Act, 1870'' (french: link=no, Loi de 1870 sur le Manitoba)Originally entitled (until renamed in 1982) ''An Act to amend and continue the Act 32 and 33 Victoria, chapter 3; and to establish and provide for the Government of the Pro ...
'' in the House of Commons. However, the draft legislation was very unpopular with some members of the Conservative caucus, and its introduction triggered a political crisis. Faced with a caucus revolt, Bowell was forced to call an election and to resign in April of that year. Following the election call, with the remedial bill not passed by Parliament,
Charles Tupper Sir Charles Tupper, 1st Baronet, (July 2, 1821 – October 30, 1915) was a Canadian Father of Confederation who served as the sixth prime minister of Canada from May 1 to July 8, 1896. As the premier of Nova Scotia from 1864 to 1867, he led ...
led the Conservatives in the election and became Prime Minister, though not for long. The Liberal Party under
Wilfrid Laurier Sir Henri Charles Wilfrid Laurier, ( ; ; November 20, 1841 – February 17, 1919) was a Canadian lawyer, statesman, and politician who served as the seventh prime minister of Canada from 1896 to 1911. The first French Canadian prime mini ...
, himself a French Catholic, took on a vigorous campaign to prevent the bill from being passed before the government called another election (expected to be in June 1896). The election of 1896 was centred on the Schools Question. It especially divided Conservatives in Quebec and Ontario; French Catholic Quebecers were offended that French was being eliminated in Manitoba as an official language, while Ontario saw opposition to Catholic support by the strong
Orange Order The Loyal Orange Institution, commonly known as the Orange Order, is an international Protestant fraternal order based in Northern Ireland and primarily associated with Ulster Protestants, particularly those of Ulster Scots people, Ulster Sco ...
. The Liberals, under Laurier, took advantage of the division in the Conservative party. Laurier, considering Québec's '' Jesuits’ Estates Act''—which drew significant reactions from Ontario's Orange Order—proposed what he called "the sunny way," i.e., achieving a solution through diplomatic negotiations rather than imposing one through legislation, stating during the federal election campaign:
If it were in my power, I would try the sunny way. I would approach this man Greenway with the sunny way of patriotism, asking him to be just and to be fair, asking him to be generous to the minority, in order that we may have peace among all the creeds and races which it has pleased God to bring upon this corner of our common country. Do you not believe that there is more to be gained by appealing to the heart and soul of men rather than to compel them to do a thing? Skelton, Oscar. 1921. ''Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier''.
Laurier won the election and became the 7th Prime Minister of Canada.


Laurier-Greenway Compromise, 1896

This particular period of the Manitoba schools crisis ended on 16 November 1896 upon a compromise developed between Prime Minister
Wilfrid Laurier Sir Henri Charles Wilfrid Laurier, ( ; ; November 20, 1841 – February 17, 1919) was a Canadian lawyer, statesman, and politician who served as the seventh prime minister of Canada from 1896 to 1911. The first French Canadian prime mini ...
and Premier of Manitoba
Thomas Greenway Thomas Greenway (March 25, 1838 – October 30, 1908) was a Canadian politician, merchant and farmer. He served as the seventh premier of Manitoba from 1888 to 1900. A Liberal, his ministry formally ended Manitoba's non-partisan government, al ...
, called the Laurier-Greenway Compromise (officially titled the ''Terms of Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of Manitoba for the Settlement of the School Question''), which amended the '' Public Schools Act''. This agreement did not reverse the 1890 legislation; instead, it allowed for religious instruction (i.e., Catholic education) in Manitoba's public schools, under certain conditions, for 30 minutes at the end of each day. Moreover, French (like other minority languages) could be used in teaching, but also under certain conditions: only on a school-by-school basis requiring there to be a minimum of 10 French-speaking pupils. They also re-established a Catholic school board, but without government funding, and Catholic teachers could be hired in the public schools, also under particular conditions. Many Catholics were still opposed to this compromise, and even appealed to
Pope Leo XIII Pope Leo XIII ( it, Leone XIII; born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci; 2 March 1810 – 20 July 1903) was the head of the Catholic Church from 20 February 1878 to his death in July 1903. Living until the age of 93, he was the second-ol ...
. The Pope sent an observer, who concluded, like Laurier, that the compromise was the fairest one possible with so few Catholics left in the province.


Repeal and resistance (1916–23)


''Thornton Act''

The next part of the crisis came in March 1916, when, with the ''Thornton Act'', the government of
Tobias Norris Tobias Crawford Norris (September 5, 1861 – October 29, 1936) was a Canadian politician who served as the tenth premier of Manitoba from 1915 to 1922. Norris was a member of the Liberal Party.J. M. Bumsted"Tobias Crawford Norris" ''The Cana ...
repealed the '' Public Schools Act'' amendments made from the Laurier-Greenway Compromise, which allowed for bilingual instruction in Manitoba's public schools. The teaching of any non-English language, as well as the use of such language as a language of instruction, were thereby prohibited in these schools. Moreover, the new legislation also made it so that all new teachers in Manitoba would be trained in English only, as it forced the closure of
St. Boniface Boniface, OSB ( la, Bonifatius; 675 – 5 June 754) was an English Benedictine monk and leading figure in the Anglo-Saxon mission to the Germanic parts of the Frankish Empire during the eighth century. He organised significant foundations o ...
's French-language teachers’ college. There were two central reasons behind Norris' repeal. First, in the late 19th century, Canada experienced a large, unforeseen wave of immigration, and as result, Manitoba saw an increase in the number of nationalities represented and languages spoken. The issue was that, due to the Laurier-Greenway Compromise allowing for instruction in minority languages, such made the school system less effective in imposing English as the province's dominant language. The second reason was that, at the time, the level of education of Manitoba's population as a whole was quite poor. (This was more so a problem caused by the lack of
truancy Truancy is any intentional, unjustified, unauthorised, or illegal absence from compulsory education. It is a deliberate absence by a student's own free will (though sometimes adults or parents will allow and/or ignore it) and usually does not refe ...
-oriented laws, rather than an issue of language.)


Francophone resistance

It was at this point that Franco-Manitobans began to organize resistance in order to ensure the survival of their language in the province. Established that very year (1916) was the (AÉCFM; ), which was directed from the shadows by the
clergy Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
, and was described as a kind of francophone counterpart to the provincial Department of Education. The AÉCFM encouraged francophone instructors to continue teaching French and to keep using it as a language of instruction without the knowledge of the authorities, even if this required lying to school inspectors. Some school inspectors themselves looked the other way to French being taught at public schools; if an inspector or someone else were to report a teacher for teaching French, the association would assuredly defend them. At the municipal level, the hiring of teaching staff was the responsibility of school board trustees. Francophones controlled many small local school boards, using the opportunity of this position to hire mostly francophone Catholics. From 1923 to 1966, AÉCFM held an annual French contest for students in grades 4 through 12 in order to strengthen pride in the French language in the province, publishing contest results in '' La Liberté'', a French-language newspaper in Manitoba. The winners would then be sent to Québec, where they represented their province at the Canada-wide competition. The AÉCFM officially disbanded in 1968.


Aftermath (1947–)

In the mid 20th century, French gradually began to regain its place in the education system of Manitoba. Circa 1947, Manitoba authorized the teaching of French as a foreign language in its secondary schools. In 1955, Premier Douglas L. Campbell and his Liberal government allowed the teaching of French in grades 4 through 6. In 1959, the Department of Education approved a list of French-language textbooks. In 1967, Premier
Dufferin Roblin Dufferin "Duff" Roblin, (June 17, 1917 – May 30, 2010) was a Canadian businessman and politician. He served as the 14th premier of Manitoba from 1958 to 1967. Roblin was appointed to the Senate of Canada on the advice of Prime Minister Pierre ...
's government authorized the use of French, for up to half of the school day, as the language of instruction for other subjects. In 1970, Premier
Edward Schreyer Edward Richard Schreyer (born December 21, 1935) is a Canadian politician, diplomat, and statesman who served as Governor General of Canada, the 22nd since Canadian Confederation. Schreyer was born and educated in Manitoba, and was first electe ...
's government made French a language of instruction equal to English. Consequently, in 1973, Sister Léonne Dumesnil founded Manitoba’s first French-immersion school, École Sacré-Cœur, in Winnipeg. Manitoba's (BEF; ) was established 1975 in order to support the development of education in French. The following year, the position of Deputy Minister for French Education was created. In 1993, a francophone school division was created under the passing of the ''Public Schools Amendment (francophone Schools Governance) Act''. The next year, the new ''Division scolaire franco-manitobaine'' (Franco-Manitoban School Division) took under its wing 20 French schools with over 4,000 students. The Division has since expanded to 24 educational institutions (including 1 adult learning centre) as of 2016, with a total of some 5,200 students.


See also

French in Manitoba * Franco-Manitoban * Franco-manitoban School Division * History of Manitoba * '' Reference re Manitoba Language Rights'' French in Canada * Anti-Quebec sentiment * Orange Order in Canada, anti-French group *
French immersion French immersion is a form of bilingual education in which students who do not speak French as a first language will receive instruction in French. In most French-immersion schools, students will learn to speak French and learn most subjects s ...
* French language in Canada **
Acadians The Acadians (french: Acadiens , ) are an ethnic group descended from the French who settled in the New France colony of Acadia during the 17th and 18th centuries. Most Acadians live in the region of Acadia, as it is the region where the de ...
** Franco-Albertans ** Franco-Columbian ** Franco-Newfoundlander **
Franco-Nunavois This is a list of notable people who are from Nunavut, Canada, or have spent a large part or formative part of their life in that territory. A * Eva Aariak, former Premier of Nunavut * Susan Aglukark, singer-songwriter * Leona Aglukkaq, MP, M ...
**
Franco-Ontarian Franco-Ontarians (french: Franco-Ontariens or if female, sometimes known as ''Ontarois'' and ''Ontaroises'') are Francophone Canadians that reside in the province of Ontario. Most are French Canadians from Ontario. In 2016, the Government of O ...
** Franco-Quebecer ** Fransaskois **
Franco-Yukonnais Franco-Yukonnais () are French Canadian or French speaking residents of Yukon, a territory of Canada. French has full official language status in the Yukon. Demographics The Canada 2016 Census identified 1,575 residents of the territory as franc ...
*
Official bilingualism in Canada The official languages of Canada are English and French, which "have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada," according to Canada's constitution. "Official ...
** Timeline of official languages policy in Canada **
Minister responsible for Official Languages (Canada) The minister of official languages () is a minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet. The minister is responsible for administering ''Official Languages Act'', ensuring that government services are available in both English and French, p ...
**
Ministry of Francophone Affairs The Ministry of Francophone Affairs (french: Ministère des Affaires francophones) in the Canadian province of Ontario is responsible for the provision of government services to Franco-Ontarian citizens and communities. It was originally founded ...


References


Further reading

* Bale, Gordon. 1985. "Law, Politics and the Manitoba School Question: Supreme Court and Privy Council." ''
Canadian Bar Review The Canadian Bar Association (CBA), or Association du barreau canadien (ABC) in French, represents over 37,000 lawyers, judges, notaries, law teachers and law students from across Canada. History The Association's first Annual Meeting was h ...
'' (1985). 63: 461+ * Bres, Sandrine Hallion. "The French Language in Manitoba: French-Canadian and European Roots.” ''Encyclopedia of French Cultural Heritage in North America''. *Clark, Lovell, ed. 1968. ''The Manitoba School Question: majority rule or minority rights?''; historians debate the issue * Crunican, Paul. 1974. ''Priests and Politicians: Manitoba Schools and the Election of 1896''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. * Jaenen, Cornelius J. 1978. "The Manitoba School Question: An Ethnic Interpretation." Pp. 317‒31 in ''Culture and Education'', edited by M. L. Kovacs. *Miller, J. R. 1973. "D'Alton McCarthy, equal rights, and the origins of the Manitoba School Question." '' Canadian Historical Review'' 54(4):369–92. * Morton, William Lewis. 1970
''Manitoba: A History''
; a standard scholarly history * Reid, J. H. Stewart, Kenneth McNaught, and
Harry S. Crowe Harry Sherman Crowe (1922–1981) was a history professor, university administrator, and labour researcher. In 1958, his firing by United College, Winnipeg, United College gained national attention in Canada. In raising questions about the securit ...
, eds. 1964. ''A Source-book of Canadian History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers''. Toronto: Longmans Canada Ltd. pp 353–58. *Russell, Frances. 2003. ''The Canadian Crucible: Manitoba's Role in Canada's Great Divide''.


External links


Manitoba Schools Question
" ''UM Digital Collections'' — search results for a collection newspaper clippings from the time of the Manitoba School Question

(2001), ''Quebec History'', Marianopolis College. — extensive resource on the Manitoba School Question. *
Quebecers, the Roman Catholic Church and the Manitoba School Question: A Chronology
(2000) — chronology of events related to the Question.
Société franco-manitobaine
— official website of Manitoba's francophone community {{Canadian identity Schools_Question, Manitoba Schools_Question, Manitoba French-language education in Canada Schools_Question, Manitoba Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) Language conflict in Canada