Magnus Magnentius ( 303 – 11 August 353) was a
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
* Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
general and
usurper
A usurper is an illegitimate or controversial claimant to power, often but not always in a monarchy. In other words, one who takes the power of a country, city, or established region for oneself, without any formal or legal right to claim it as ...
against
Constantius II
Constantius II (Latin: ''Flavius Julius Constantius''; grc-gre, Κωνστάντιος; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic ...
from 350 to 353. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction in
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
under the
Western emperor Constans
Flavius Julius Constans ( 323 – 350), sometimes called Constans I, was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of '' caesar'' from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great.
After his father's death, he was mad ...
. On 18 January 350 Magnentius was acclaimed ''
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
''. Quickly killing the unpopular Constans, Magnentius gained control over most of the
Western Empire. The Eastern emperor Constantius II, the brother of Constans, refused to acknowledge Magnentius' legitimacy and led a successful campaign against Magnentius in the
Roman civil war of 350–353
The Roman civil war of 350–353 AD was a war fought between the Roman emperor Constantius II and the usurper Magnentius.
Background
With the death of Constantine I in 337 AD, the empire was divided between his three sons from his marriage to ...
. Ultimately, Magnentius' forces were scattered after the
Battle of Mons Seleucus, and he committed suicide on 11 August 353.
Much of Magnentius' short reign was concerned with asserting his legitimacy. Unlike Constans, Magnentius was unrelated to
Constantine the Great
Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterran ...
, and so had no
dynastic
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,''Oxford English Dictionary'', "dynasty, ''n''." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A d ...
claim to the emperorship. Magnentius instead sought popular support by modeling himself as a liberator who had freed the Western Empire from the tyranny of Constans. He attempted various public and religious reform, but almost all his acts were quickly repealed by Constantius after his death. In light of the political instability of his reign, most modern and ancient historians consider him a usurper rather than an emperor.
Perhaps the most important consequence of Magnentius' revolt was the severe depletion of the Empire's military forces in civil war: The
Battle of Mursa left so many Roman soldiers dead that, according to
Zosimus, Constantius feared that Rome would no longer be able to effectively hold off barbarian invasions. Following his death, Constantius II became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
Early life and ascension
Born in Samarobriva (
Amiens
Amiens (English: or ; ; pcd, Anmien, or ) is a city and commune in northern France, located north of Paris and south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme department in the region of Hauts-de-France. In 2021, the population of ...
),
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
, Magnentius was the son of a British father and a Frankish mother. He served in the ''protectores'', a prestigious bodyguard corps attached to the imperial retinue, and was promoted to ''
comes
''Comes'' ( ), plural ''comites'' ( ), was a Roman title or office, and the origin Latin form of the medieval and modern title "count".
Before becoming a word for various types of title or office, the word originally meant "companion", either i ...
'' of the
Herculians and Jovians, the Imperial guard units. Magnentius seems to have been effective in his post and to have been well-liked by other important court officials, notably
Marcellinus, the ''comes rerum privatarum'', who supported his usurpation.
Court officials eventually hatched a plot to overthrow Constans and place Magnentius in power. By 350, Constans was likely deeply unpopular; ancient sources deride him as licentious, incompetent, and homosexual. There is confusion as to the details, but in Augustulum (
Autun
Autun () is a subprefecture of the Saône-et-Loire department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region of central-eastern France. It was founded during the Principate era of the early Roman Empire by Emperor Augustus as Augustodunum to give a Ro ...
) on 18 January 350 Magnentius announced his bid for power by attending a dinner party, stepping out for a moment, and re-entering the room in a purple toga (the traditional dress of an emperor). The party-goers, either all or in part in on the plot, hailed him Augustus.
Hydatius
Hydatius, also spelled Idacius (c. 400 – c. 469) was a late Western Roman writer and clergyman. The bishop of Aquae Flaviae in the Roman province of Gallaecia (almost certainly the modern Chaves, Portugal, in the modern district of Vila Real), he ...
(5th century), ''Cons. Constant.'' s.a. 350–3['']Chronicon Paschale
''Chronicon Paschale'' (the ''Paschal'' or ''Easter Chronicle''), also called ''Chronicum Alexandrinum'', ''Constantinopolitanum'' or ''Fasti Siculi'', is the conventional name of a 7th-century Greek Christian chronicle of the world. Its name com ...
'' (7th century), s.a. 350–3
In the days following his acclimation, Magnentius bribed the city guard to secure their loyalty and barred residents of Augustulum from leaving the city to prevent the spread of the news. Anxious to eliminate Constans—who was then hunting near the
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to ...
away from his forces—Magnentius sent a contingent to run him down, and Constans was killed at Helena (near
Perpignan
Perpignan (, , ; ca, Perpinyà ; es, Perpiñán ; it, Perpignano ) is the prefecture of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France, in the heart of the plain of Roussillon, at the foot of the Pyrenees a few kilometres from the ...
).
Zosimus claims this force was headed by
Gaiso, and that his
consulship
A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic ( to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the ''cursus honorum'' (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politic ...
in 351 was a reward for this act. Magnentius may also have executed a
purge
In history, religion and political science, a purge is a position removal or execution of people who are considered undesirable by those in power from a government, another organization, their team leaders, or society as a whole. A group undertak ...
of Constans' supporters by forging letters from Constans purportedly summoning them to court; when these supporters arrived, they were killed on the spot.
Usurper
Magnentius quickly attracted the loyalty of the provinces of
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Grea ...
,
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
, and
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hi ...
, and immediately moved to control
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
. He did so within a month of his ascension, appointing
Fabius Titianus
In Roman mythology, Fabius was the son of Hercules and an unnamed mother.
In "The Life of Fabius Maximus" from the '' Parallel Lives'' by Plutarch, Fabius, the first of his name, was the son of Hercules by a nymph or a woman native to the count ...
to the position of
''praefectus urbis'' to govern Rome. He seems to have secured Africa quickly as well, thus inheriting all of Constans' former territory except
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria (; grc, Ἰλλυρία, ''Illyría'' or , ''Illyrís''; la, Illyria, ''Illyricum'') was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by numerous tribes of people collectively known as the Illyr ...
(which would shortly come under the control of
Vetranio).
Magnentius' early reign is marked by a series of bids for political legitimacy. Lacking a connection to the Constantinian dynasty, Magnentius married
Justina
Justina and Justine are anglicised versions of the Latin name ''Iustina'', feminine of ''Iustinus'', a derivative of ''Iustus'', meaning ''fair'' or ''just''. For the masculine version of the name, see Justin (name).
Translations
*Russian: Ус� ...
, great-granddaughter of Constantine (and future wife of
Valentinian). Magnentius attempted to create an image of himself as a liberator, and minted coins with such inscriptions as 'liberator of the Roman world.' Further, Magnentius seems to have initially pursued a policy of diplomacy with Constantius, hoping to induce the emperor to recognize him officially: for the first six months of his reign, Magnentius spoke of Constantius as his senior and minted coins bearing his image. Magnentius also appealed to the controversial bishop
Athanasius
Athanasius I of Alexandria, ; cop, ⲡⲓⲁⲅⲓⲟⲥ ⲁⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲩ ⲡⲓⲁⲡⲟⲥⲧⲟⲗⲓⲕⲟⲥ or Ⲡⲁⲡⲁ ⲁⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲩ ⲁ̅; (c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, ...
—who in the end chose to side with Constantius—and repealed some of Constans' restrictions on pagan sacrifice in Italy. This latter decision, aimed at winning the support of wealthy Italian pagans, proved to be a rather crude political maneuver, and earned Magnentius a reputation as a pagan himself.
Despite his efforts Magnentius remained politically vulnerable. Constantius reasoned that legitimizing the man who murdered his brother would set an unacceptable precedent, and so prepared to march West. In Italy, Magnentius' hold over Rome proved tenuous, and
Julius Nepotianus,
Constantine's nephew, took and held the city for 27 days. Magnentius dispatched
Marcellinus (now promoted to ''
magister officiorum
The ''magister officiorum'' (Latin language, Latin literally for "Master of Offices", in gr, μάγιστρος τῶν ὀφφικίων, magistros tōn offikiōn) was one of the most senior administrative officials in the Later Roman Empire and ...
'') to retake the city. In
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria (; grc, Ἰλλυρία, ''Illyría'' or , ''Illyrís''; la, Illyria, ''Illyricum'') was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by numerous tribes of people collectively known as the Illyr ...
,
Vetranio was acclaimed emperor with the support of Constantius' sister
Constantina
Flavia Valeria Constantina (also sometimes called ''Constantia'' and ''Constantiana''; el, Κωνσταντίνα; b. after 307/before 317 – d. 354), later known as Saint Constance, was the eldest daughter of Roman emperor Constantine the Grea ...
on 1 March 350.
Though he publicly allied with Magnentius, many modern scholars contend that Vetranio was working for Constantius from the beginning, preventing Magnentius from threatening Constantinople until Constantius could march West.
There is little evidence to suggest that Magnentius' rule was tyrannical or unjust. In a funeral oration for the emperor
Julian, the orator
Libanius
Libanius ( grc-gre, Λιβάνιος, Libanios; ) was a teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school in the Eastern Roman Empire. His prolific writings make him one of the best documented teachers of higher education in the ancient world and a criti ...
concedes that Magnentius "governed
he empirein accordance with the laws." This, along with the speed with which he attracted the provinces of Britain and Hispania, may indicate that his administration was relatively competent.
Civil war
By the summer of 350 it had become clear that war was inevitable between Constantius and Magnentius. Magnentius had already moved east over the spring, and appointed his brother
Decentius as ''
Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
'' to control Gaul during his absence. In the East, Constantius was tied down for most of 350 in his
War against the Persians. However, in the autumn of 350 Constantius successfully lifted the Persian siege of
Nisibis
Nusaybin (; '; ar, نُصَيْبِيْن, translit=Nuṣaybīn; syr, ܢܨܝܒܝܢ, translit=Nṣībīn), historically known as Nisibis () or Nesbin, is a city in Mardin Province, Turkey. The population of the city is 83,832 as of 2009 and is ...
and forged a nominal piece with the
Sasanids
The Sasanian dynasty was the house that founded the Sasanian Empire, ruling this empire from 224 to 651 AD in Persia (modern-day Iran). It began with Ardashir I, who named the dynasty as ''Sasanian'' in honour of his grandfather (or father), Sasa ...
. Appointing
Constantius Gallus ''caesar'' and entrusting command of the Eastern legions to
Lucillianus, Constantius moved West. On 25 December 350 he accepted Vetriano's resignation in Illyria.
Modern scholars see the event as planned, but ancient sources describe Constantius as conquering by rhetorical ability alone.
Constantius and Magnentius wintered far apart, and, in the early months of 351, both parties flirted with the idea of peace. Constantius offered Magnentius control of Gaul, which Magnentius rejected. Magnentius' force may have been slowly deserting him, for he seems to have pushed for a battle: either the night before the battle or long before (accounts conflict) the important commander
Silvanus defected to Constantius. After failing to take the city of Mursa, Magnentius' force was approached by Constantius', and the
Battle of Mursa Major
The Battle of Mursa was fought on 28 September 351 between the eastern Roman armies led by the Emperor Constantius II and the western forces supporting the usurper Magnentius. It took place at Mursa, near the Via Militaris in the province of P ...
ensued. Constantius won a
Pyrrhic victory
A Pyrrhic victory ( ) is a victory that inflicts such a devastating toll on the victor that it is tantamount to defeat. Such a victory negates any true sense of achievement or damages long-term progress.
The phrase originates from a quote from ...
in one of the largest battles ever fought among Romans: low estimates suggest there were over 50,000 deaths. The sight of the field is reported to have reduced Constantius to tears, and to have made him fear that Rome would be unable to resist Barbarian invasion. Contemporary commentators like
Eutropius lament the loss, noting that enough men for an entire foreign invasion were lost.
Demise
Magnentius retreated across the
Alps
The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...
, perhaps after being prevented from entering Italy by the erection of garrisons loyal to Constantius. Magnentius blocked the passages West, and Constantius engaged in skirmishes with the barbarians to the Northeast for the rest of the year.
The year 352 is marked by Magnentius' failed attempts to broker a peace with Constantius: Magnentius sent an embassy to Constantius who, worried about espionage, prevented them reaching him. Magnentius then sent an assembly of bishops to Constantius with the message that he was willing to step down and take a soldier's posting under Constantius. Constantius rejected this offer as well. Magnentius' legions along the Rhine began defecting en masse, access to northern Gaul and Spain was blocked, and, in the end, he was unable to effectively prevent defection even in his camp.
At some time in the year 353, Magnentius may have attempted to assassinate
Constantius Gallus, Constantius' c''aesar'', in a bid to open the Eastern empire to attack. The incident is mentioned only in the account of Zonaras, though some scholars see a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus as corroborating it. However, some modern scholars have claim that Zonaras' account contains chronological problems, and thus the historicity of this event is uncertain. In any case, if the plot did exist, it was foiled, as Gallus outlived the civil war.
Constantius crossed the Alps in 353, and Magnentius made a final stand in July of the same year at the
Battle of Mons Seleucus, after which he fled to
Lugdunum
Lugdunum (also spelled Lugudunum, ; modern Lyon, France) was an important Roman city in Gaul, established on the current site of Lyon. The Roman city was founded in 43 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus, but continued an existing Gallic settle ...
(
Lyon
Lyon,, ; Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area of France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of ...
). There, some sources report that his home was surrounded by the forces of Constantius and that he lashed out against his brother Desiderius. However, most sources agree that, on 10
or 11
August 353, he committed
suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and ...
by falling on his sword. His brother
Decentius hanged himself when he received the news.
Following the suppression of Magnentius' rebellion, Constantius began to root out his followers. The most notorious agent he employed in this search was the ''
primicerius notariorum''
Paulus Catena
Paulus Catena ('the Chain' or 'the Fetter')
(''fl.'' 350s, d. 361/2)
was a senior Roman public official who served as an investigator and notary for Constantius II during the mid- fourth century.Seeck 1906, p. 233 He is principally known through t ...
("Paul the Chain").
Religion
Magnentius' religious beliefs remain a point of contention among scholars. Many argue that Magnentius was, at least nominally, a
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι� ...
. However, some sources hint at a pagan restoration during his short reign. Epigraphic evidence suggests that he allowed pagans to perform sacrifices at night, a practice that had been banned by Constans.
Philostorgius
Philostorgius ( grc-gre, Φιλοστόργιος; 368 – c. 439 AD) was an Anomoean Church historian of the 4th and 5th centuries.
Very little information about his life is available. He was born in Borissus, Cappadocia to Eulampia and Car ...
describes Magnentius as a demon worshiper, and
Zonaras recounts a story of him using black magic.
Numismatically, Magnentius' coinage is neither distinctively pagan nor Christian, with the exception of a series of coins bearing a
Christogram
A Christogram ( la, Monogramma Christi) is a monogram or combination of letters that forms an abbreviation for the name of Jesus Christ, traditionally used as a religious symbol within the Christian Church.
One of the oldest Christograms is th ...
. This symbol has come to be associated solely with Christianity, but this may not reflect attitudes at the time: MacMullen argues that Magnentius was a Pagan, and that the Chi-Rho had been so de-Christianized by the mid fourth century that he could use it freely.
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
* , ''Le Monnayage de Magnence (350 – 353)'',
Wetteren (Belgium), Édition numismatique romaine, 1983
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External links
{{Authority control
300s births
353 deaths
4th-century Roman usurpers
Ancient Romans who committed suicide
Comites rei militaris
Generals of Constans
Imperial Roman consuls
People from Amiens
Suicides by sharp instrument in France