A micronucleus test is a test used in toxicological screening for potential genotoxic compounds. The assay is now recognized as one of the most successful and reliable assays for genotoxic

carcinogen A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis (the formation of cancer). This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive subst ...

s, i.e., carcinogens that act by causing genetic damage and is recommended by the

OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; french: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, ''OCDE'') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate ...

guideline for the testing of chemicals. There are two major versions of this test, one '' in vivo'' and the other ''

in vitro ''In vitro'' (meaning in glass, or ''in the glass'') studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology and ...

''. The ''in vivo'' test normally uses mouse

bone marrow Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue found within the spongy (also known as cancellous) portions of bones. In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production (or haematopoiesis). It is composed of hematopoieti ...

or mouse peripheral blood. When a bone marrow erythroblast develops into a polychromatic erythrocyte, the main nucleus is extruded; any micronucleus that has been formed may remain behind in the otherwise anucleated

cytoplasm In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. ...

. Visualisation of micronuclei is facilitated in these cells because they lack a main nucleus. An increase in the frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes in treated animals is an indication of induced

chromosome A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins ar ...

damage.

Micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities in peripheral blood erythrocytes of penguins Pygoscelis papua 1

Micronuclei were first used to quantify chromosomal damage by H.J. Evans et al., in root tips of the Broad Bean, ''Vicia faba''. Subsequently the ''in vivo'' assay was developed independently by W. Schmid and by J.A. Heddle and their colleagues. The mouse peripheral blood assay was developed by J.T. MacGregor and has now been adapted for measurement by flow cytometry by A. Tometsko and colleagues. The first use of micronuclei in

cultured cells Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. The term "tissue culture" was coined by American pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows. This te ...

was by J.A. Heddle and colleagues in human lymphocytes. The assay has been improved by M. Fenech and colleagues for use in lymphocytes and other cells in culture cells. Simple Giemsa staining was originally used for MN scoring. Later, the cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) method was established, where Cyt-B, an inhibitor of the spindle assembly, was used to prevent

cytokinesis Cytokinesis () is the part of the cell division process during which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides into two daughter cells. Cytoplasmic division begins during or after the late stages of nuclear division in mitosis and me ...

occurring after nuclear division. The CBMN method is used for the assessment of chromosomal loss, breakage, and associated apoptosis and

necrosis Necrosis () is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, or trauma which result in the unregulated dig ...

induced by different mutagens. A micronucleus is the erratic (third) nucleus that is formed during the anaphase of mitosis or

meiosis Meiosis (; , since it is a reductional division) is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately ...

. Micronuclei (the name means 'small nucleus') are cytoplasmic bodies having a portion of acentric chromosome or whole chromosome which was not carried to the opposite poles during the anaphase. Their formation results in the daughter cell lacking a part or all of a chromosome. These chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes normally develop nuclear membranes and form as micronuclei as a third nucleus. After cytokinesis, one daughter cell ends up with one nucleus and the other ends up with one large and one small nucleus, i.e., micronuclei. There is a chance of more than one micronucleus forming when more genetic damage has happened. The micronucleus test is used as a tool for genotoxicity assessment of various chemicals. It is easier to conduct than the chromosomal aberration test in terms of procedures and evaluation. Using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with probes targeted to the

centromere The centromere links a pair of sister chromatids together during cell division. This constricted region of chromosome connects the sister chromatids, creating a short arm (p) and a long arm (q) on the chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers ...

region, it can be determined if a whole chromosome, or only a fragment is lost.

References and notes

{{reflist Mutation

See also

References and notes