Makossa

Makossa is a music genre originating in Douala, Littoral Region, Cameroon in the late 20th century. Like much other music of Sub-Saharan Africa, it uses strong electric bass rhythms and prominent brass. Makossa uses guitar accompaniments, in the forms of solo and rhythm guitar, with a main singer (lead vocalist) and a choir of backup singers, with the focus being on the texture of the guitar, the role it plays in the song, the relationship between it and other instruments (including the bass, drum set, horns, synthesizers, etc.), the lyrical content and languages sung as well as their relationship (as far as timbre goes) with the music, the uses of various percussion instruments, including the bottle, the groove of the bass as well as the drums, and the use of technical knowledge and microprocessors to make the music. It is in common time (4/4) for the vast majority of cases. Language-wise, it is typically sung in French, Duala or Pidgin English. Tempo-wise, it is typically in between 130 and 170 BPM. It traditionally consisted of guitar-picking techniques that borrows from bikutsi; with a guitar-structure of a guitar switching from solo to rhythm from assiko; supplanted with complex bass grooves, and gradually picked up on brass section, from funk and later in the 70s, string section, from disco. It along with this acquired the sebene from Congolese rumba. In the 1980s makossa had a wave of mainstream success across Africa and to a lesser extent abroad. It is considered to be one of the greatest Cameroonian and even African "adventures" as a music.

Makossa, which in some accounts is said to mean "the contortions" and others to mean "(I) dance" in the Duala language, originated from a Duala dance called the ''kossa''. Emmanuel Nelle Eyoum started using the refrain ''kossa kossa'' in his songs with his group "Los Calvinos". The style began to take shape in the 1950s though the first recordings were not seen until a decade later. There were artists such as Eboa Lotin, François Missé Ngoh and especially Manu Dibango, who popularised makossa throughout the world with his song " Soul Makossa" in 1972. It is the most sampled African song, in history to date. The chant from the song, ''mamako, mamasa, maka makossa'', was later used by Michael Jackson in "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'" in 1983. In 2007, Rihanna similarly sampled it too for "Don't Stop The Music". Many other performers followed suit. The 2010 World cup also brought makossa to the international stage as Shakira sampled the Golden Sounds popular song " Zamina mina (Zangalewa)".

Etymology

The word "makossa" is originated from the Duala words "m'a" and "kossa". "Kossa" is a term that was a term at the edge of neologism expressed initially as a cry of exhortation, and as "a kind of swear word that has the status of a stimulus, a spur. In the book ''Le Makossa: une musique africaine moderne'', a passage including this quote is written as follows:

:"En effet, le terme Makossa
dérive
de « m'a kossa » qui veut dire littéralement en langue duala et au pluriel le
contorsions
; au singulier « di kossa » la contorsion. Ce vocable « Kossa » est un terme à la lisière du néologisme et du cri d'exhortation, mieux, une sorte de juron ayant statut de stimulus, d'aiguillon."

In the same book, the author explains that according to Remy Minko Mba (late journalist):

: "Kossa is a kind of exclamation, a cry of joy that is usually uttered to give more vigor, ndmore energy to the dance."

In the original French version, a passage including the translated version of this quote reads:

:"Remy MINKO MBA poursuit: « Kossa est une sorte d'exclamation, un cri de joie que l'on pousse généralement pour donner plus de vigeur, plus d'énergie à la danse. Il s'agit donc d'une sorte de stimulus qui doit nécessairement provoquer une réaction positive »."

In Cameroonian Pidgin English, a cognate that could one of the ultimate underlying origins of the word "makossa" is: "kosh". One of the definitions of this word is the third one in this list, which is the context of the origin of the word makossa: "to insult, abuse, curse, swear at."

Origins

Before "makossa" as a word existed, the genre of music itself emerged in the late 19th century. It was based on the currents of musical influence in the city where it was born.

The term makossa was founded by Nelle Eyoum. He did this when casually shouting out "kossa kossa" to children who would dance in reaction. This is akin to shouts of exhortation to children in daily life. This was to stimulate partners on the dance floor to redouble or increase in fervency in the dance, especially during the frenzied part of the composition, commonly called " secousse" or "balle à terre".

But even though Nelle Eyoum coined the term, they were others who played a significant role in the developing of the music. In the mid-1960s, Ekambi Brillant set the pattern for makossa through his popular recordings. These include musicians such as Lobe Lobe Rameau, Mouelle Guillaume, Ebanda Manfred, Tibo Essombe, Epee Mbende Richard, Eitel Tobbo, Ebolo Emmanuel, Charles Lembe, Ruth Soppo, Jacqueline Ewondo, Tapelon, Epata, Eyoum Decca, Willy le Pape, etc.

Early development

Makossa developed, expanded and evolved into one of the most popular and ubiquitous modern music genres in Cameroon. Its influence shaped and altered the musical discourse in the country for more than half a century, so much so that its reach expanded far beyond the nation's borders to other parts of West and Central Africa. It is the rhizomic evolutionary offshoot of the musical confluence arising from the colonial era and its revolutionary relationship between the West and sub-Saharan Africa in the 18th century.

Along with this came variegated cultural ideas and expressions, intellectual concepts, religious values, as well as radical and disruptive new technologies from Europe that were at the presence of African societies. The outcome was a plethora of newer musical forms and modes of expression along the coast of West and Central Africa. Like the Kru people of Sierra Leone and Liberia, business people, migrant workers, travelers, and musicians who were from the French Congo also brought along another stream of music with them to Douala.

This junction between "old Africa and a new world of modernity" produced new auditory and visual frontiers. It allowed for a sensory experiential interface which culminated into a wide array of artistic and contemporary forms in West and Central African previously unheard before. It was out of this milieu that makossa would emerge, in one which was being revolutionized by new experimental and experiential realms which would revolutionize the entire continent.

Makossa originated when Nelle Eyoum combined the experiences of Douala ambasse bey, Bassa assiko, and Ghanaian and Nigerian highlife and shouted exclamations to stimulate dancing by children in the 1950s.

Ethnogenesis

Assiko

Assiko is a music genre that is found in the Littoral, Centre, South, and North-West Regions of Cameroon. Its many forms are due to the fact that at each region corresponds a particular form of assiko, that is to say a rhythm, a harmonic and melodic course of action as well as a specific orchestration. It is thus that we distinguish a hard assiko, "muscular", rapid and lilting like Bassa Assiko and Eton Assiko; a cool assiko like Bulu Assiko; and the "Bottle dance" of the North-West Region. However, whether it is Bassa, Eton, Bulu, or from the North-West, assiko has a standard organology, namely the usage of the sound of the bottle as idiophone for percussion, to the point of bringing the violinist Jean-Luc Ponty to call it the "Bottle-bop".

The specific mode that is of interest is Bassa Assiko because of its influence on makossa. In effect, it is characterized by an accelerated rhythm, syncopated particularly rapid and jerky. The solo guitar is very predominant as well as the percussion. It is important to note that the solo guitar plays diverse roles of accompaniment and of successive chorus sandwiched with singing. With attentive listening, makossa is a slowed-down assiko. Certain works of Nkotti Francois unveil with eloquence this influencce of assiko; for example the song, "Mintoa Mintutu". A conflict has by the way opposed the guitar-arranger, author-composer- producer Toto Guillaume and the assiko artist Jean Bikoko Aladin around the song "Dibena", which won the Disque D'Or in 1982. Jean Bikoko Aladin had accused Toto Guillaume of having plagiarized by slowing down the tempo, his song "Samedi Soir".

Essewe

Essewe is a traditional Sawa dance which traditionally was practiced at funerary gatherings as a dance that is rooted as a psychotherapeutic dance. The vocation was to "exorcise" the sorrow and pain of having lost a dear one. A way to "cure" through and via methods of dance and sung lyrics which were to morally "rearm" and psychologically balance the family in the funeral. This includes the partners, ascendants, descendants, collaterals, etc.

Bolobo

Bolobo is a genre that is similar to mangambeu as well as bikutsi. It is a dance of rejoicing and of the Duala people. It is practiced both in broad daylight and at night. It is a dance used as a test of initiation to sexual life as well as marital life. It has literature which has inspired makossa pioneers.

Sociopolitical context

The emergence of makossa is historically contemporary to the fight for independence. The emerging indigenous elite was crossed by the breath of an independence solidly leaned on the desire of cultural sovereignty. A manner of returning to the sources maintained by the current of the negritude, racial activism and black American politics. The departure of colonists passed as well by way of the decolonization of a cultural space and music dominated by the waltz, jerk, twist, and classical music. Moreover, the creation of places dedicated to relaxation such as the famous "palm wine bars" - where people consumed the following local alcohol: "bilibili", "kwata beer" raphia wine, and "arki" indigenous whiskey - offered local musicians a frame of expression. Light formations (a guitarist, a percussionist, and voices), played traditional tunes. The availability of electricity and musical equipment, popular balls known as "bol", and the begins of urban prostitution are as many elements which constituted the embryogenesis of typical Cameroonian music in general and makossa music in particular.

In total, makossa has a traditional rhythmic substrate which served as a ramp of launch for the construction of its identity.

Exogenesis

Gospel and classical songs of Baptist churches

Many musicians did their classes in choirs of Baptist churches before blossoming in profane music. One must highlight that the Duala are by influence Protestant. Gospel and classical chants impacted the aspect of makossa concerning choirs, precisely the recourse to feminine voices.

Highlife

Highlife is a West African popular music whose origins lay in Sierra Leone, then Ghana and finally in Nigeria in the 1920s. It is a fusion of Western sounds and traditional musics. Highlife touches a multitude of styles and diverse combinations of instruments that correspond to emergent social classes as well as local traditions. The term "highlife", is revealing of the new urban culture created by colonialism.

In 1930, distinct varieties existed along the West African coast. Two major styles emerged: the dance orchestra with brass instruments as well as other Western instruments; and groups more popular with dominant guitar and some musicians. It is this second style that influenced makossa as far as guitaristic texture and harmonic structure.

Merengue

Merengue has its origins in the Dominican Republic in the 19th century. It originated with African instruments. notably drums. It later progressively incorporated Western instruments such as the accordion and more recently brass instruments. It marked almost all urban African music and Cameroonian music in particular; it was highly popular in the 1950s and 60s. According to Joseph OWONA NTSAMA:

"Makossa of the Cameroonian coast in between 50 and 60 from the start, is musically and sociologically an ersatz of Merengue."

The tempo of merengue has particularly influenced makossa.

Congolese rumba

Original rumba was born in Cuba from the African slaves. It is a music of poor people in urban environments, of workers without wives, nor families. It is a fusion of Spanish fandango, biguine, merengue, mambo, chachacha, and calypso. Ever since its first appearance in Cuba, rumba accomplished its triangular path via America-Europe-Africa to finally root itself in Africa, notably in the Congo where it mixed with highlife to support the fight for African independences. It changed quite a bit in the Congo.

In effect, by sebene, it becomes more fluid and rhythmic. It has left a considerable melodic imprint on makossa. Pioneers of makossa were lulled by the guitaristic fingering of the couturiers of rumba. Vicky LONGOMBA, Docteur NICO, FRANCO, VERKYS, Franklin BOUKAKA, the orchestras "African-Jazz", "OK Jazz", "les bantus de la capitale", "les grands maquisards", etc. were their paradigms. Certain guitar phrases were not more or less than retakes of rumba solos. Congolese music has more than all other exterior influences marked its imprint on makossa for it was the most diffused at that era thanks to the almighty "Radio Léopoldville".

Moreover, the trip to Douala between 1966 and 1967 of the orchestra "Cercul jazz" from Brazzaville, would prove for eight months in a productive stay that rumba could be sung in Duala. This would contribute to its influence on makossa.

The funky-disco movement: The Motown Sound

Tired of the "cool jazz" at that period, many African-American musicians in the years from 1954-1960 advocated the return to the strength of a more "muscular" jazz coincided with the hatching of rock'n'roll of young whites. Directly inspired by bebop, this hard jazz planted its roots at the sources of African rhythm.

Moreover, this jazz searched spiritual inspiration within the gospel song and the religious music of African-Americans. The funky which comes from this synthesis has received a frank success. This success would be amplified by its proximity with soul and disco which are far ersatz. Certain icons would serve as a "school" in the basic formation of future stars of makossa: James Brown, the Bee-Gees, Kool and the Gang, T. Connection, Donna Summer, Village People, Gloria Gaynor, ABBA, the Temptations, Shalamar, the Commodores, Ike and Tina Turner, Percy Sledge, Boney-M, Smokey Robinson, etc.

The funky-disco movement influenced makossa via the use of the aerophones, or the brass and woodwind instruments; the bass playing and to a certain extent the beat of the drum kit. The bassists include: Joe TONGO, LONG Manfred, Jeannot Karl DIKOTO MANDENGUE, Vicky EDIMO, and ALADJI TOURE. The influence of the funky-disco movement besides its purely technical and orchestral aspect, also affected the onomastics of makossa musicians. In effect, many purely and simply adopted American names: Peter Moukoko, Bill Loko, Jimmy Sax, Peter Makossa, Jackson Berry, Vicky Edimo, Peter Mpouly, Tim and Foty, Jimmy Takoube, Black Styls, Joe Mboule, Joe Etonde, Peter Yamson, Georges Dickson, Mike Kounou, Blacks Styls, Negro Styls, Cracks, Chancellor, etc.

Notes

References

* West, Ben (2004). ''Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide''. Guilford, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press Inc.
* Noah, Jean-Maurice (2010). ''Le Makossa: une musique africaine moderne''. Paris, France: L'Harmattan

{{Genres of African popular music

African popular music
Cameroonian styles of music
19th-century music genres
Culture in Douala