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Lucius Aurelius Marcianus was a Roman soldier whose military career coincided with the period of crisis that characterized the middle decades of the Third Century AD – see
Crisis of the Third Century The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed. The crisis ended due to the military victories of Aurelian and with the ascensio ...
. Probably of humble origins in one of the Illyrician provinces of the Empire he was one of the group of men from this region who chose a military career – or had it chosen for them – whose professional capabilities brought them to the fore of public life in those troubled times. Marcianus rose to the highest levels of the military hierarchy. The evidence suggests that he earned the trust of the Emperors
Gallienus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (; c. 218 – September 268) was Roman emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and alone from 260 to 268. He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empi ...
and
Claudius II Marcus Aurelius Claudius "Gothicus" (10 May 214 – January/April 270), also known as Claudius II, was Roman emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alemanni and decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle ...
and, possibly,
Marcus Aurelius Probus Marcus Aurelius Probus (; 230–235 – September 282) was Roman emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner pr ...
among their successors and that he was one of the principal commanders in the prolonged war against a coalition of what the late antique Greek writers called ''
Scythian The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...
'' peoples whose incursions in that period seemed to threaten the very survival of the Roman state. These would refer to the major Germanic and Iranian peoples, among them the Goths and Roxolani, who invaded the Roman empire across the lower Danube River. Nothing is known of his private life.


The sources


Literary


Ancient

The notoriously inaccurate ''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'' (''SHA'') make several references to Marcianus's military exploits in two of the Imperial ''uitae'', i.e. the ''Duo Gallieni'' (the Two Gallieni) and the ''Diui Claudii'' (the Deified Claudius), albeit solely in relation to his role in dealing with barbarian incursions into the Imperial provinces of the region now described as South Eastern Europe in 267–8 AD. They also assert that he was deeply involved in the conspiracy of senior officers that led to the assassination of Gallienus in 268 AD and his replacement by
Claudius II Marcus Aurelius Claudius "Gothicus" (10 May 214 – January/April 270), also known as Claudius II, was Roman emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alemanni and decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle ...
– i.e. Claudius Gothicus. The only other ancient literary source in which Marcianus is securely attested is the ''Νέα Ιστορία'' ("New History") of the Greek historian, Zosimus. Zosimus's "Marcianus" is generally agreed to be the same man as that referred to in the ''SHA'',Gerov(1965:''passim'') but he is mentioned only once in the "New History" and then in a purely military context. However, Zosimus's failure to make any mention of him in relating the events of the army marshals' ''coup'' against Gallienus is considered very significant by some modern commentators. It was at one time believed that Marcianus was to be identified with the Marianus who was one of three leaders mentioned in a recently discovered fragment of
Dexippus Publius Herennius Dexippus ( el, Δέξιππος; c. 210–273 AD), Greeks, Greek historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian Mysteries, Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of ''archon basileus ...
as coordinating Greek resistance to a Gothic invasion that swept across the Balkans in the early 260s. However recent scholarship has established Marianus as a previously unknown governor of ''Achaia''


Secondary

The only modern biography specifically devoted to Marcianus is that of Gerov which was written in 1965. Gerov wrote before recent archaeological and numismatic discoveries encouraged the development of a new view of Imperial activity in ''
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
'' during the reign of Claudius II and Marcianus's possible involvement in this. Thus his biography did not consider the possibility that Marcianus commanded an expedition to counter ''Scythian'' incursions into ''Asia'' region at this time, for which the only literary reference was an off-hand statement in Zosimus. In addition, he was not able to take account of the very critical examination of the ''SHA'' material that took place from the late-1960s onwards, especially by Sir
Ronald Syme Sir Ronald Syme, (11 March 1903 – 4 September 1989) was a New Zealand-born historian and classicist. He was regarded as the greatest historian of ancient Rome since Theodor Mommsen and the most brilliant exponent of the history of the Roman ...
, which might have affected his willingness to accept the account of Marcianus's activity propagated by that work. Although Gerov's paper is still considered the standard study of Marcianus, it is now possible to come to significantly different conclusions on some points.


Epigraphic


Reference to Marcianus authoritatively established

There are three epigraphic inscriptions that have been identified by published authorities as relating to the Marcianus of the ancient literary sources – albeit with varying degrees of confidence. These add considerably to the knowledge of his career derived from the literary sources: 1. From ''Philippopolis'', ''Thracia'' (ancient city located in modern Plovdiv,
Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedo ...
): This inscription (in Greek) comes from a monument set up by the Town-Council and People of ''Philippopolis'' honouring one "Marcianus" (i.e. no ''praenomen'' or ''nomen'') who saved the city when it was besieged by an unidentified enemy. The identification with the Marcianus of the literary sources (see above) was first made by Gerov; 2. From '' Termessos'', ''
Lycia et Pamphylia Lycia et Pamphylia was the name of a province of the Roman empire, located in southern Anatolia. It was created by the emperor Vespasian (69–79), who merged Lycia and Pamphylia into a single administrative unit. In 43 AD, the emperor Claudius ...
'' province, (ancient city located on Mount Dagi (
Taurus Mountains The Taurus Mountains ( Turkish: ''Toros Dağları'' or ''Toroslar'') are a mountain complex in southern Turkey, separating the Mediterranean coastal region from the central Anatolian Plateau. The system extends along a curve from Lake Eğird ...
)),
Antalya la, Attalensis grc, Ἀτταλειώτης , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = 07xxx , area_code = (+90) 242 , registration_plate = 07 , blank_name = Licence plate ...
province,
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
): This inscription (in Greek) is from a monument set up by the Town-Council and People of ''Termessos'' dedicated to one "L. Aurelius Marcianus", a "patron and benefactor" of the city who "brought peace". It is now proposed that this dates from the reign of Claudius II and that the dedicatee can be identified with the Marcianus of the ''Philippopolis'' Inscription.Biagi(2006:363''fn''19) The ''Termessos'' inscription provides the only secure reference to Marcianus's ''praenomen'' (i.e. Lucius); however, his ''nomen'' is also confirmed in a third inscription 3. Discovered in
Rhodes Rhodes (; el, Ρόδος , translit=Ródos ) is the largest and the historical capital of the Dodecanese islands of Greece. Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Rhodes regional unit, which is part of the S ...
, but originally from ''
Kibyra Cibyra or Kibyra (Greek: ), also referred to as Cibyra Magna, was an Ancient Greek city near the modern town of Gölhisar, in Burdur Province. It lay outside the north-western limits of the ancient province of Lycia and was the chief city of ...
'', ''
Pamphylia Pamphylia (; grc, Παμφυλία, ''Pamphylía'') was a region in the south of Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cilicia, extending from the Mediterranean to Mount Taurus (all in modern-day Antalya province, Turkey). It was bounded on the north b ...
'' (ancient city in south-west Turkey, near the town of
Gölhisar Gölhisar (Lakecastle) is a town and district of Burdur Province in the Mediterranean region of Turkey. History During antiquity Golhisar was site of an ancient city called Kibyra, the capital of a tetrapolis comprising Kiyra itself, Bubon, Balbu ...
, in
Burdur Burdur is a city in southwestern Turkey. The seat of Burdur Province, it is located on the shore of Lake Burdur. Its estimated 2010 population is 78,389. History Ancient history Whilst there is evidence of habitation in the province dating b ...
Province: This inscription (in Greek) was on a monument honouring one "Aurelius Marcianus", who is celebrated as "a most generous military leader". This inscription, like that from ''Termessos'', is now thought to date from the reign of Claudius II and to honour the same man.Biagi:(2006:''passim''.)) All three of these inscriptions give the dedicatee the title of ''διασημότατον'' (i.e. ''diasemotaton'' – nominative form ''diasemotatos''), which is the Greek equivalent of the Latin honorific ''Vir Perfectissimus''. Thus, when the monuments with which they were associated were set up, he was a member of the Second Class of the
Roman equestrian order The ''equites'' (; literally "horse-" or "cavalrymen", though sometimes referred to as "knights" in English) constituted the second of the property-based classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the senatorial class. A member of the equestrian ...
. The ''viri perfectissimi'' were invariably men of very high official and social status with close connections to the Imperial Court. Similarly on each of them he is described as a ''δούξ'' (''doux'')- the Greek transliteration of the Latin ''
Dux ''Dux'' (; plural: ''ducēs'') is Latin for "leader" (from the noun ''dux, ducis'', "leader, general") and later for duke and its variant forms (doge, duce, etc.). During the Roman Republic and for the first centuries of the Roman Empire, '' ...
'' which was at this time still in the process of developing from a functional title to an established rank in the military hierarchy. All known ''duces'' were ''Viri Perfectissimi''. This suggests that, in addition to military capability, men who were entrusted with this function had to be known personally to and trusted by the reigning Emperor. The status of a ''vir perfectissimus et dux'' was an exalted one in the hierarchy of the Imperial Service of the late 260s. (The governor of ''Lycia et Pamphylia'' probably ranked no higher than ''egregius'' ("Select"), the Third Grade of the Equestrian Order). That all three dedicatees mentioned in these inscriptions not only bore the same ''cognomen'' (and in the Asian instances, the same ''gentilicium''), but were also of this rank strengthens the proposition that they were, in fact, the same man who was also the Marcianus referred to by the ''SHA'' and Zosimus. If this identification is accepted, the detail of the inscriptions fills out the information relating to Marcianus's service in the war in ''Achaea'' and ''Illyricum'' under Gallienus that can be derived from the literary record. It also argues for the proposition that he subsequently saw active service against ''Scythians'' raiders in ''Asia'' for which there is no literary record. In that latter connection, a recent study of a fourth inscription from the ancient city of ''
Sagalassos Sagalassos ( el, Σαγαλασσός), also known as Selgessos ( el, Σελγησσός) and Sagallesos ( el, Σαγαλλησός), is an archaeological site in southwestern Turkey, about 100 km north of Antalya (ancient Attaleia) and 30& ...
'' (''Lycia et Pamphylia'' – modern Antalya province, Turkey) seems to throw further light on his career. The ''Sagalassos'' document does not mention Marcianus specifically, but it does indicate that the operations against the ''Scythian'' pirates in the Eastern Mediterranean under Claudius II mentioned by Zosimus involved a significant land operation under Claudius II in Pisidian ''Asia''. This encouraged a review of the then current interpretations of the Marcianus inscriptions


... not established

A further inscription (in Latin) discovered near ''
Salona Salona ( grc, Σάλωνα) was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. Salona is located in the modern town of Solin, next to Split, in Croatia. Salona was founded in the 3rd century BC and was mostly destroyed in ...
'', '' Dalmatia'', (now
Split Split(s) or The Split may refer to: Places * Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia * Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay * Split Island, Falkland Islands * Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua Arts, entertai ...
,
Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...
) honouring the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius Probus Marcus Aurelius Probus (; 230–235 – September 282) was Roman emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner pr ...
was dedicated by an "Aurelius Marcianus", a ''Vir Perfectissimus'', described as ''
Praeses ''Praeses'' (Latin  ''praesides'') is a Latin word meaning "placed before" or "at the head". In antiquity, notably under the Roman Dominate, it was used to refer to Roman governors; it continues to see some use for various modern positions. ...
'', i.e. equestrian governor, of the province of '' Dalmatia''. The invocation of Probus as the reigning Emperor fixes this document to the period 276–82 AD which means that the dedicator was at least a contemporary of the Marcianus of the literary record. The possibility that he was that Marcianus is not inherently unlikely, but the identification has yet to be securely established.


Origins

There is no information from the ancient sources relating to Marcianus's date or place of birth but he is generally assumed to have had his origin in one of the Danubian provinces – i.e. ''Illyricum''. His ''nomen''/'' gentilicium'', (i.e. "Aurelius"), would usually be taken to indicate that his family was admitted to Roman citizenship as a result of the Emperor
Caracalla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (born Lucius Septimius Bassianus, 4 April 188 – 8 April 217), better known by his nickname "Caracalla" () was Roman emperor from 198 to 217. He was a member of the Severan dynasty, the elder son of Emperor S ...
's ''
Constitutio Antoniniana The ''Constitutio Antoniniana'' (Latin for: "Constitution r Edictof Antoninus") (also called the Edict of Caracalla or the Antonine Constitution) was an edict issued in AD 212, by the Roman Emperor Caracalla. It declared that all free men in t ...
'' of 212 AD. This would mean that he was certainly not a member of the aristocracy that had ruled the Empire under the
Severan Dynasty The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty that ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235, during the Roman imperial period. The dynasty was founded by the emperor Septimius Severus (), who rose to power after the Year of the Five Empero ...
, but owed his prominence to his own capabilities.


Rise to eminence

Information for Marcianus's career in the years before he was entrusted with senior commands is almost non-existent. The only literary reference is from Zosimus who, recording Marcianus's appointment as theatre-commander in the war against ''Scythian'' invaders of ''Illyricum'' in 268 AD – see below – remarked that he was:
... a man of great experience in military affairs.Zos(1.40)))
This indicates that his early career had been mainly as a soldier. It is most likely that Marcianus enlisted as a common soldier which would suggest that he had to serve many years before achieving commissioned rank. On this period of his life, apart from Zosimus's aside – see above – the sources are entirely silent. The ''Philippopolis'' Inscription (epigraphic source 1. above) records that before he began to receive Imperial commissions as a ''
dux ''Dux'' (; plural: ''ducēs'') is Latin for "leader" (from the noun ''dux, ducis'', "leader, general") and later for duke and its variant forms (doge, duce, etc.). During the Roman Republic and for the first centuries of the Roman Empire, '' ...
'' Marcianus had been the '' tribunus'' of a Praetorian Cohort and a ''Protector'' of Gallienus. (See '' Protectores Augusti Nostri''). This indicates that, whatever his beginnings, he had not only survived involvement in the almost incessant warfare that was the condition of a soldier serving in the Illyrician garrisons in the middle decades of the Third Century, but also that he thereby distinguished himself and that by the mid-260s he had achieved equestrian status and had been singled out for promotion to the most senior commands. Praetorian ''tribuni'' were chosen from among officers who were members of the Equestrian Order by the Emperor himself, usually on the recommendation of the Praetorian Prefect or other persons of influence in Court Circles. His status as a ''protector'' was almost certainly acquired during Gallienus's sole reign (260–8 AD) when these appointments were made from among senior Praetorian officers or legionary prefects (see, again, Volusianus and also
Publius Aelius Aelianus Publius Aelianus Aelianus was a senior officer in the Imperial Roman army in the mid-Third Century AD who rose from relatively lowly origins to become the prefect of a legion under the Emperor Gallienus He was one of the earliest beneficiaries of ...
) for by the end of Gallienus's reign and certainly under Claudius II these men were being appointed from the centurions of all units attached to the Imperial field-army – see Traianus Mucianus. Progression to more senior commands by way of a tour of duty in the units of the Roman garrison (sometimes with successive postings to the ''
Vigiles The ''Vigiles'' or more properly the ''Vigiles Urbani'' ("watchmen of the City") or ''Cohortes Vigilum'' ("cohorts of the watchmen") were the firefighters and police of ancient Rome. History The ''Triumviri Nocturni'' (meaning ''three men of th ...
'', the ''
Cohortes Urbanae The ''cohortes urbanae'' (Latin meaning ''urban cohorts'') of ancient Rome were created by Augustus to counterbalance the enormous power of the Praetorian Guard in the city of Rome and serve as a police service. They were led by the Praefectus ur ...
'' and the Praetorian Guard) and admission to the ranks of the ''Protectores Augusti Nostri'' was a career-path followed by a number of Marcianus's eminent near-contemporaries.


Career as a field-officer

The praetorian tribunate mentioned on the ''Philippopolis '' Inscription is the only known reference to Marcianus as a member of the regular military hierarchy in command of a specific unit of the army as traditionally organised – albeit with no hint as to which of the ten cohorts of the Guard he commanded. Otherwise he is always described as a ''
dux ''Dux'' (; plural: ''ducēs'') is Latin for "leader" (from the noun ''dux, ducis'', "leader, general") and later for duke and its variant forms (doge, duce, etc.). During the Roman Republic and for the first centuries of the Roman Empire, '' ...
''. In this capacity he would have commanded composite forces consisting of detachments (''
vexillationes A ''vexillatio'' (plural ''vexillationes'') was a detachment of a Roman legion formed as a temporary task force created by the Roman army of the Principate. It was named from the standard carried by legionary detachments, the '' vexillum'' (plural ...
'') of regular units put together to deal with particular emergencies that the local provincial garrisons were unable to deal with. In exercising such commands he would have been answerable to the Emperor directly. His recorded military exploits in this capacity all relate to campaigns undertaken against incursions of barbarian war-bands from the region to the north of the Black Sea known to the Romans as ''Scythia'' in the period 267–69 AD. The details of this war are obscure. The narrative used here to put the scrappy references of the ''SHA'' and Zosimus into some sort of historical context is that described in the
Battle of Naissus The Battle of Naissus (268 or 269 AD) was the defeat of a Gothic coalition by the Roman Empire under Emperor Gallienus (or Claudius II) and Aurelian near Naissus (Niš in present-day Serbia). The events around the invasion and the battle are an ...
and by Biagi.


In Europe


Actions in '' Achaea''

Marcianus's first recorded military exploit was a victory he won over ''Scythian'' invaders in the province of ''Achaea''.''SHA''(''DG'':6.1) It is now accepted that this action related to the ''Scythian'' incursions that took place in 267 AD. The enemy were part of a sea-born force that had arrived in Grecian waters after an eventful voyage across the Black Sea and into the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean. At first things had gone well for them and they had sacked
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
and then ravaged the Peloponnese as far south as
Sparta Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referre ...
. However, a Roman naval force seems to have destroyed many of their ships and, as they retired northwards overland, a force of Athenian militia under
Dexippus Publius Herennius Dexippus ( el, Δέξιππος; c. 210–273 AD), Greeks, Greek historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian Mysteries, Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of ''archon basileus ...
inflicted a defeat on them near that city. Their encounter with Marcianus's army was their first with regular Roman troops and, although he too managed to defeat them, the engagement was inconclusive. The barbarians seem to have retired in good order, withdrawing northward as a coherent force. However, somewhere in ''Illyricum'' they were intercepted by the Imperial field-army under Gallienus which won a substantial victory in the valley of the River Nestos (which marked the border between the ''provinciae'' of '' Macedonia'' and ''
Thracia Thracia or Thrace ( ''Thrakē'') is the ancient name given to the southeastern Balkan region, the land inhabited by the Thracians. Thrace was ruled by the Odrysian kingdom during the Classical and Hellenistic eras, and briefly by the Greek D ...
'') persuading the war-leader of the "Heruli", Naulobatus, to make peace with the Emperor. This action probably took place before the end of the year 267 AD. It is not known if Marcianus was present, but Gerov considered that he retained his independent command after Gallienus took charge of the war in ''Illyricum''. (As noted above, the relief of ''Philippopolis'' probably took place in the autumn of that year).


... and ''Illyricum'', 267–8 AD...

Marcianus is next recorded: This reference is rather opaque, but, it is interpreted to mean that after the Imperial victory over Naulobatus's war-band on the Nestos, Marcianus was given the task of clearing ''Illyricum'' of other ''Scythian'' invaders who seem to have been inspired by the initial success of the "Goths" and "Heruli" in ''Achaea'' and the eastern Mediterranean to swarm into the Balkans. Gerov suggests that after the action by the Nestos the Romans were essentially engaged in "mopping up" operations against an enemy already defeated. However, as indicated, the language of the ''SHA'' gives the impression that the fighting was difficult and inconclusive and served only to stir up more barbarian attacks. The ''Uita Diui Claudii'' appears to suggest that the future Emperor Claudius and Marcianus served as joint-commanders in this campaign. Furthermore, it is inferred that, whereas "Gothic" bands
escaped Marcianus after he had chastised them...
Claudius fared rather better in the ''SHA'' account
... hoping to prevent what actually came to pass .e. the necessity for a major campaign against Scythian invaders(he) had not allowed
hem A hem in sewing is a garment finishing method, where the edge of a piece of cloth is folded and sewn to prevent unravelling of the fabric and to adjust the length of the piece in garments, such as at the end of the sleeve or the bottom of the g ...
to break forth.
It is possible that Claudius did indeed serve alongside Marcianus although, if he did so, it was probably as Marcianus's subordinate/lieutenant. There is really no means of deciding who was the most effective commander in the field. However, recent historians have cast doubt on the notion that Claudius took any part at all in this campaign. It may be significant that the ''Philippopolis'' Inscription honours Marcianus as the man who raised the siege, an action which seems to have taken place at this time, and makes no reference to Claudius.


... as theatre-commander in ''Illyricum''

Probably shortly after the Battle of the Nestos Gallienus found it necessary to abandon his operations in ''Illyricum'' and hurry back to Italy to crush Aureolus who had risen in revolt and seized '' Mediolanium'' (
Milan Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...
). According to Zosimus, he left Marcianus to carry on the war against the ''Scythians''. This appointment is not referred to by the ''SHA'' or any other ancient source now extant, but seems to be generally accepted by modern historians. The title accorded Marcianus on the ''Philippopolis'' Inscription, ''doux kai strateletes'', is interpreted by Gerov to mean that, whereas he had been a ''dux'' while Gallienus was in command in ''Illyricum'', he was promoted above that rank when the Emperor left him in charge of the war against the ''Scythians'' after his own departure to fight Aureolus. This term is the Greek equivalent of the Latin ''Dux Ducum'' - i.e. Leader of Leaders (Commander-in-Chief). Gerov cites the instance of the Palmyran general Zabdas who was mentioned in one inscription as the ''strateletes'' of the army of
Zenobia Septimia Zenobia ( Palmyrene Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; AD 240 – c. 274) was a third-century queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria. Many legends surround her ancestry; she was probably not a commoner and she married the ruler of the city ...
. This title - in the Latin form - was also bestowed on Aurelius Marcellinus in the epigraph on the gate of ''
Verona Verona ( , ; vec, Verona or ) is a city on the Adige River in Veneto, Italy, with 258,031 inhabitants. It is one of the seven provincial capitals of the region. It is the largest city municipality in the region and the second largest in nor ...
'' (''CIL'', 3329 (''ILS'', 544) (''Verona'')). Gerov further argues that as ''strateletes'' Marcianus's command had a territorial significance in that he was made a ''Praeses'', probably of the two '' Moesias'', provinces which lay athwart the main invasion-route for barbarian incursions from the Black Sea. Christol argues that it might indicate a wider responsibility for the Balkan provinces as a whole as indicated by Zozozimus - see above. Gerov's interpretation of the title's significance is not accepted by the PLRE which considers that the term indicated no more than that Marcianus was a ''dux'' as this was currently understood. It argues that the addition of ''kai stratelates'' to the word ''doux'' had no other purpose than to "assist interpretation". However, the phrase is interpreted, it seems likely that Town-Council and Citizens of ''Philippopolis'' intended it to be known that Marcianus was in supreme command of the force that had saved their city at its moment of greatest peril and that his only superior was Gallienus:
... Our August and Unvanquished Lord...
This would accord with the meaning of the term ''doux'' on Inscriptions 2 and 3 – see above. Zosimus makes no reference to the nature of the war fought by Marcianus in his new capacity. As already indicated, Gerov suggests that, by the time Gallienus left for Italy, all that remained for his successor in ''Illyricum'' was to deal with scattered bands of barbarians who knew that they were beaten. However, as also indicated. the ''SHA'' can be interpreted to mean that Marcianus was had to deal with new incursions of peoples encouraged by the earlier successes of the "Goths" and "Heruli". The presently preferred narrative of this war arguing for a second wave of incursions whose ultimate defeat was only achieved by a supreme effort of the Imperial field-army under the Emperor Claudius in bloody confrontations at the
Battle of Naissus The Battle of Naissus (268 or 269 AD) was the defeat of a Gothic coalition by the Roman Empire under Emperor Gallienus (or Claudius II) and Aurelian near Naissus (Niš in present-day Serbia). The events around the invasion and the battle are an ...
and in the central Balkans mountains seems to indicate that Marcianus as Gallienus's theatrre-commander had had to fight a difficult campaign where successes were accompanied by reversals.


Role in the conspiracy against Gallienus

Marcianus is next recorded at '' Mediolanium'' where Aureolus was under siege by Gallienus's Imperial field-army. According to Gerov, Aureolus's stubbornly prolonged defence of the city after his defeat in the field had finally obliged Gallienus to summon Marcianus from ''Illyricum'' where that officer commanded the only other substantial force currently at his disposal. According to the ''SHA'' in Italy he joined with Aurelius Heraclianus, Gallienus's Praetorian Prefect, in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. By this account the two generals could
... no longer endure the iniquities of Gallienus...
and they accordingly decided that he had to be killed and that one or the other of them should become Emperor in his place. The ''SHA'' then goes on to suggest that Marcianus was instrumental in contriving the circumstances of Gallienus's death and, when that was accomplished, that it was he who pacified the army rank-and-file which had been enraged by the murder by arranging for the distribution of a substantial donative to each man from the treasury. However, whatever the intentions of the principals in the affair, in the event it was Claudius who was chosen to succeed the murdered Gallienus. Claudius had had nothing to do with the conspiracy, but, in the end, everybody agreed that he was
..he best man of all....
The ''SHA'' assertion that Marcianus was a principal conspirator is not confirmed by Zosimus – or by any other ancient source. According to the account in the "New History" it was Claudius who was Heraclianus's co-conspirator. Not only does Zosimus make no mention of Marcianus as being involved in the ''putsch'' he fails even to place him at ''Mediolanium'' when these dramatic events were unfolding. Modern historians are divided on the issue of which of Gallienus's senior officers was complicit in his murder and subsequent replacement by Claudius and, specifically, on the involvement of Marcianus. Gerov considers that he was indeed one of the principals in the conspiracy. Certainly, he is inclined to accept the account of the ''SHA'' as exculpating Claudius who he suggests was the posthumous victim of Zosimus's pagan antipathy to his memory as the proclaimed ancestor of Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor. Watson too believes that his fellow-marshals knew that they could rely on the support of Marcianus whether or not he was actually present at ''Mediolanium''. Other historians take the contrary view that Zosimus's account was broadly correct and that the ''SHAs attempt to involve Marcianus was an exercise in misdirection. They argue that that author of that work intended to refute any suggestion that Claudius might have been involved in a treasonable conspiracy against a legitimate Emperor, even one so contemptible as Gallienus, because he was, in fact, guilty of just that. They point out that this was a matter of present concern when the ''SHA'' were writing because Claudius was the proclaimed ancestor of the ruling
Constantinian Dynasty The Constantinian dynasty is an informal name for the ruling family of the Roman Empire from Constantius Chlorus (died 306) to the death of Julian in 363. It is named after its most famous member, Constantine the Great, who became the sole rule ...
. For these historians the very suggestion that Marcianus was actually present at ''Mediolanium'' is suspect given the silence of Zosimus and the grave state of affairs he would have had to leave behind him in ''Illyricum''. Potter takes no position in this controversy which is, of course, ultimately, incapable of resolution. Nevertheless, his general observation on the matter is highly apposite:
..while the sources are less than clear about the precise chain of events, they are explicit on a single issue: that most of Gallienus's senior officials wanted him dead.
If Marcianus shared the initial view of the army rank and file and dissented from this sentiment there is no reason to suppose that he attempted to thwart the conspiracy or ever contemplated taking vengeance on those involved.


A campaign in ''Asia''

The ancient sources give no indication as to the role of Marcianus in the great war against the "Goths" and related barbarian peoples that culminated in the Roman victories at the Battle of ''Naissus'' and, afterwards, in the Balkan mountains – '' Haemus Mons''. However, the inscriptions from ''Termessoss'' and ''Kibyra'' (epigraphic sources 2 and 3 above) suggest that he was associated with a campaign to clear the Eastern Mediterranean of "Gothic" pirates who had been ravaging the islands and the southern Anatolian coast since their original incursion from the Black Sea in 267 AD. Recent archeological and numismatic discoveries in this region (in particular the ''Sagalassos'' Inscription – see above – now seem to indicate that Imperial forces were active in this region in the reign of Claudius II. "Gothic" raids into the province of ''Pamphylia'' (modern
Antalya la, Attalensis grc, Ἀτταλειώτης , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = 07xxx , area_code = (+90) 242 , registration_plate = 07 , blank_name = Licence plate ...
) not only threatened communications between the European and the eastern provinces, but also put in danger the flow of corn and other produce from the ''Pisidian'' plateau at a time when Palmyrene activities in Egypt had made these all the more vital to Roman forces seeking to operate in the region. It is likely that the general disturbance caused by the Gothic pirates was also unsettling the peoples of '' Isauria'' in the central regions of ''Asia'' who the Romans had up to then been content to leave to their own devices. Under the High Empire responsibility for local policing and regional defence in the Asian provinces had been entrusted to the militias of the autonomous Greek cities of the region and there were no significant Imperial forces in this region. The central Asian provinces were defined as ''inermis'' (''lit.'' "unarmed") insofar that it had never seemed necessary to station permanent garrisons of imperial troops. However, it would seem that by the latter part of Claudius's reign this arrangement was no longer adequate and increased intervention by the central government became necessary. Control of ''Termessos'' and ''Kibyra'' together with that of ''
Sagalassos Sagalassos ( el, Σαγαλασσός), also known as Selgessos ( el, Σελγησσός) and Sagallesos ( el, Σαγαλλησός), is an archaeological site in southwestern Turkey, about 100 km north of Antalya (ancient Attaleia) and 30& ...
'', a third city where evidence of activity at the time of Claudius II is particularly noted by Biagi, would have been key to the maintenance of Rome's strategic interests in the region. A landward thrust into this area would also have complemented the naval campaign undertaken, apparently at that time, by Tenagino Probus, the governor of '' Aegyptus'' Marcianus is likely to have arrived in the region accompanied by European troops and to have cooperated with the local police-forces. The inscriptions would suggest that he may have achieved his immediate objectives. (Zosimus asserts that the Gothic pirates:
... did not achieve much...
although, he gives Tenagino Probus, the commander of the naval operations, credit for this outcome). There is no evidence to suggest that Marcianus was still in the region when Zenobia of Palmyra launched her attempt to take control of the Asian provinces.


Final years


''Praeses Dalmatiae''?

A number of factors make it tempting to identify the Marcianus of the literary record with "Aurelius Marcianus", the ''Vir Perfectissimus'' mentioned on the ''Salona'' Inscription as ''Praeses'' of ''Dalmatia'' under the Emperor Probus: *Their chronological proximity; *The coincidence of the names: "Marcianus" was not an uncommon ''cognomen'', but *The very high rank (i.e. ''dux'') and social status (i.e. ''vir perfectissimus'') attributed to both these persons increases the likelihood that they were one and the same; and *The example of
Publius Aelius Aelianus Publius Aelianus Aelianus was a senior officer in the Imperial Roman army in the mid-Third Century AD who rose from relatively lowly origins to become the prefect of a legion under the Emperor Gallienus He was one of the earliest beneficiaries of ...
who was appointed ''Praeses'' of ''Mauretania Caesariensis'' by Probus some ten years after he was recorded as the equestrian commander of ''Leg. II Adiutrix'' in the mid-260s AD indicates that that prince would appoint seasoned military men to govern provinces where their professional expertise was likely to be required.Nagy(1965:305-7) Like Aelianus, the literary Marcianus certainly fulfils that criterion. Marcianus had had direct experience of campaigning in the mountains of ''Illyricum'' and would seem to have been well-suited to the task of governing a province as "difficult" as ''Dalmatia''. Nevertheless, there has never been a secure identification of Marcianus with the ''Salona'' dedicatee made by an authoritative source so this possibility must presently be discounted for WP purposes.


Later career and death

There is no information whatsoever as to the final stages of Marcianus's career or to the date and circumstances of his death.


Heirs

Marcianus left no known heirs.


Notes


References


Works cited


Primary

*The Augustan History: Life of Gallienus ''Vitae Duo Gallieni'' (''SHA DG'

Life of the Deified Claudius ''Vita Divi Claudii'' (''SHA VC'')

*Zosimus: ''New History'' Book

(Zos)


Secondary

*(Alfoldi(1965)) *L'Année Épigraphique (AE) * (Biagi(2006)); *(Bray(1995)); * (Bury(1898)): * (Mallan and Davenport (2015); *''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' (CIL) *(Christol(1977)) *(Christol(1978)) *(Dobson(1974)) * (Forgiarini(1998)) * (PLRE (1971–92)) * (Gerov (1965)). *(Mennen (2011) *(Nagy(1965) *(Potter (2004)) * (Saunders(1991)) *(Smith(1979)) *(Southern&Dixon(2000) * (Watson(1999))


Other external links


Lucius Aurelius Marcianus
on the Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA) Database at
Oxford University Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to th ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Marcianus Ancient Roman generals 3rd-century Romans Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Equestrian commanders of vexillationes