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The liver of mammals,
fowl Fowl are birds belonging to one of two biological orders, namely the gamefowl or landfowl (Galliformes) and the waterfowl (Anseriformes). Anatomical and molecular similarities suggest these two groups are close evolutionary relatives; together ...
, and fish is commonly eaten as food by humans (see
offal Offal (), also called variety meats, pluck or organ meats, is the organs of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of edible organs, which varies by culture and region, but usually excludes muscle. Offal may also refe ...
). Pork,
lamb Lamb or The Lamb may refer to: * A young sheep * Lamb and mutton, the meat of sheep Arts and media Film, television, and theatre * ''The Lamb'' (1915 film), a silent film starring Douglas Fairbanks Sr. in his screen debut * ''The Lamb'' (1918 ...
, veal,
beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). In prehistoric times, humankind hunted aurochs and later domesticated them. Since that time, numerous breeds of cattle have been bred specifically for the quality or quantity ...
, chicken, goose, and
cod Cod is the common name for the demersal fish genus ''Gadus'', belonging to the family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus ''Gadus'' is commonly not calle ...
livers are widely available from butchers and supermarkets while stingray and
burbot The burbot (''Lota lota'') is the only gadiform (cod-like) freshwater fish. It is also known as bubbot, mariah, loche, cusk, freshwater cod, freshwater ling, freshwater cusk, the lawyer, coney-fish, lingcod, and eelpout. The species is closely ...
livers are common in some European countries. Animal livers are rich in iron, copper, the
B vitamins B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism and synthesis of red blood cells. Though these vitamins share similar names (B1, B2, B3, etc.), they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexi ...
and preformed vitamin A. Daily consumption of liver can be harmful; for instance, vitamin A toxicity has been proven to cause medical issues to babies born of pregnant mothers who consumed too much vitamin A. A single serving of beef liver exceeds the tolerable upper intake level of vitamin A. 100 g cod liver contains 5 mg of vitamin A and 100 µg of vitamin D. Liver contains large amounts of vitamin B12, and this was one of the factors that led to the discovery of the vitamin.


Etymology

From Middle English liver, from Old English , from Proto-Germanic , from Proto-Indo-European "to smear, smudge, stick", from Proto-Indo-European - "to be slimy, be sticky, glide". Cognate with Saterland Frisian "liver", West Frisian "liver", Dutch "liver",
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
"liver",
Danish Danish may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark People * A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark * Culture of Denmark * Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ance ...
, Norwegian and Swedish language lever "liver" the last three from Old Norse "liver". In the Romance languages, the anatomical word for "liver" (
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
,
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional It ...
,
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
, etc.) derives not from the Latin anatomical term, , but from the culinary term , literally "stuffed with figs," referring to the livers of geese that had been fattened on figs ( foie gras).


Preparation

Liver can be baked, boiled, broiled, fried,
stir-fried Stir frying () is a cooking technique in which ingredients are fried in a small amount of very hot oil while being stirred or tossed in a wok. The technique originated in China and in recent centuries has spread into other parts of Asia and ...
, or eaten raw (''asbeh nayeh'' or ''sawda naye'' in Lebanese cuisine, liver sashimi). In many preparations, pieces of liver are combined with pieces of meat or kidneys, like in the various forms of Middle Eastern
mixed grill Many regional cuisines feature a mixed grill, a meal consisting of a traditional assortment of grilled meats. List of mixed grill dishes Mixed grill dishes include: * ''Churrasco'' – typically featuring various cuts of chicken and beef, espe ...
(e.g. ''
meurav Yerushalmi Jerusalem mixed grill ( he, מעורב ירושלמי) (''me'orav Yerushalmi'') is a grilled meat dish considered a specialty of Jerusalem. It consists of chicken hearts, spleens and liver mixed with bits of lamb cooked on a flat grill, seasoned ...
''). Spreads or pâtés made from liver have various names, including
liver pâté Liver pâté is a pâté and meat spread popular in Northern and Eastern Europe. Made from finely or coarsely ground pork liver and lard, it is similar to certain types of French and Belgian pâtés. Scandinavia Liver pâté is a popular f ...
, pâté de foie gras,
chopped liver Chopped liver ( yi, געהאַקטע לעבער, ''gehakte leber'') is a liver pâté popular in Ashkenazic cuisine. This dish is a common menu item in kosher Jewish delicatessens in Britain, Canada, South Africa, and the United States. Prep ...
,
liverwurst Liverwurst, leberwurst, or liver sausage is a kind of sausage made from liver. It is eaten in many parts of Europe, including Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Netherlands, Norway, Polan ...
,
liver spread Liver spread is a Filipino canned spread product made from pureed pork, beef, or chicken liver mixed with cereal and/or offal similar to the French pâté and German liverwurst. Liver spread is usually eaten as a filling for sandwich bread an ...
, and Braunschweiger. Other liver sausages include
mazzafegato Mazzafegato (plural: mazzafegati) or mazafegghito is a sausage that is manufactured in regions of central Italy. It comes from the upper Tiber Valley, Valtiberina (where it is also called ''sambudello''), in Tuscany and Umbria, and from Marche. ...
or salsiccia matta. A traditional South African delicacy, namely
skilpadjies Skilpadjies is a traditional South African food, also known by other names such as and . The dish is lamb's liver wrapped in (caul fat), which is the fatty membrane that surrounds the kidneys. Most cooks mince the liver, add coriander, choppe ...
, is made of minced lamb's liver wrapped in ''netvet'' (caul fat), and grilled over an open fire.


Fish liver

Some fish livers are valued as food, especially the stingray liver. It is used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England, as well as the ''beignets de foie de raie'' and ''foie de raie en croute'' in
French cuisine French cuisine () is the cooking traditions and practices from France. It has been influenced over the centuries by the many surrounding cultures of Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Germany and Belgium, in addition to the food traditions of the r ...
. Cod liver (usually tinned in its oil and served seasoned) is a popular spread for bread or toast in several European countries. In Russia, it is served with potatoes.
Cod liver oil Cod liver oil is a dietary supplement derived from liver of cod fish (Gadidae). As with most fish oils, it contains the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and also vitamin A and vitamin D. Histori ...
is commonly used as a dietary supplement. Liver of
burbot The burbot (''Lota lota'') is the only gadiform (cod-like) freshwater fish. It is also known as bubbot, mariah, loche, cusk, freshwater cod, freshwater ling, freshwater cusk, the lawyer, coney-fish, lingcod, and eelpout. The species is closely ...
is eaten in Finland: it is common for fish vendors and supermarket fish aisles to sell these fish with liver and roe sacks still attached. These parts are often eaten boiled or added to burbot soup. Burbot and its liver are a traditional winter food.


Poisoning

The livers of polar bears,
walruses The walrus (''Odobenus rosmarus'') is a large flippered marine mammal with a discontinuous distribution about the North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere. The walrus is the only living species in the fami ...
, bearded seals, moose, and
huskies Husky is a general term for a dog used in the polar regions, primarily and specifically for work as sled dogs. It refers to a traditional northern type, notable for its cold-weather tolerance and overall hardiness. Modern racing huskies that ma ...
can contain very high levels of preformed vitamin A, and their consumption has led to vitamin A poisoning (
hypervitaminosis A Hypervitaminosis A refers to the toxic effects of ingesting too much preformed vitamin A (retinyl esters, retinol, and retinal). Symptoms arise as a result of altered bone metabolism and altered metabolism of other fat-soluble vitamins. Hypervi ...
) according to several anecdotal reports. The Inuit will not eat the liver of polar bears or bearded seals. It has been estimated that consumption of 500 grams of polar bear liver would result in a toxic dose for a human. Russian sailor
Alexander Konrad Alexander Eduardovich Konrad (russian: Алекса́ндр Эдуа́рдович Ко́нрад; 1890 – 1940) was a Russian sailor. Along with Valerian Albanov, he was one of two survivors, and the only surviving sailor, of the Brusilov expe ...
, who accompanied explorer
Valerian Albanov Valerian Ivanovich Albanov (russian: Валериа́н Ива́нович Альбанов; 26 May 1881 – 1919) was a Russian navigator, best known for being one of two survivors of the Brusilov expedition of 1912, which killed 22. Ea ...
in a tragic ordeal over the
Arctic The Arctic ( or ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, N ...
ice in 1912, wrote about the awful effects of consuming polar bear liver. Also, in 1913,
Antarctic The Antarctic ( or , American English also or ; commonly ) is a polar region around Earth's South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau and other ...
explorers on the
Far Eastern Party The Far Eastern Party was a sledging component of the 1911–1914 Australasian Antarctic expedition, which investigated the previously unexplored coastal regions of Antarctica west of Cape Adare. Led by Douglas Mawson, the party aimed to explor ...
Douglas Mawson and
Xavier Mertz Xavier Guillaume Mertz (6 October 1882 – 8 January 1913) was a Swiss polar explorer, mountaineer, and skier who took part in the Far Eastern Party, a 1912–1913 component of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, which claimed his life ...
were believed to have been poisoned, the latter fatally, from eating
husky Husky is a general term for a dog used in the polar regions, primarily and specifically for work as sled dogs. It refers to a traditional northern type, notable for its cold-weather tolerance and overall hardiness. Modern racing huskies that mai ...
liver, though this has been contested recently. Mercury content in some species can also be an issue. In 2012, the Government of Nunavut warned pregnant women to lower their intake of ringed seal liver due to elevated levels of mercury. The neurotoxin in the liver of the pufferfish (which is consumed in Japanese cuisine as fugu, tightly regulated by
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
law) contains the highest concentration of the
tetrodotoxin Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. Its name derives from Tetraodontiformes, an order that includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, ocean sunfish, and triggerfish; several of these species carry the toxin. Although tetrodotoxin was discovered ...
, which characterizes the species. Consequently, the liver has been illegal to serve since 1984.


Traditions

Pig liver is a traditional food of immigrant Okinawans in Hawaii. It used to be eaten on
New Year's Eve In the Gregorian calendar, New Year's Eve, also known as Old Year's Day or Saint Sylvester's Day in many countries, is the evening or the entire day of the December 31, last day of the year, on 31 December. The last day of the year is commonly ...
.Ethnic Foods of Hawaiʻi
page 80


References

{{meat, state=expanded German cuisine Greek cuisine Mexican cuisine Philippine cuisine South African cuisine Offal