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Latin translations of the 12th century were spurred by a major search by European scholars for new learning unavailable in western Europe at the time; their search led them to areas of southern Europe, particularly in central Spain and Sicily, which recently had come under Christian rule following their reconquest in the late 11th century. These areas had been under
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
rule for a considerable time, and still had substantial Arabic-speaking populations to support their search. The combination of this accumulated knowledge and the substantial numbers of Arabic-speaking scholars there made these areas intellectually attractive, as well as culturally and politically accessible to
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
scholars. A typical story is that of Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–87), who is said to have made his way to Toledo, well after its reconquest by Christians in 1085, because he Many Christian theologians were highly suspicious of ancient philosophies and especially of the attempts to synthesize them with Christian doctrines. St. Jerome, for example, was hostile to
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
, and
St. Augustine Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Afr ...
had little interest in exploring philosophy, only applying logic to theology. For centuries, ancient Greek ideas in Western Europe were all but non-existent. Only a few monasteries had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works. There was a brief period of revival, when the Anglo-Saxon monk Alcuin and others reintroduced some Greek ideas during the Carolingian Renaissance. After Charlemagne's death, however, intellectual life again fell into decline. Excepting a few persons promoting Boethius, such as
Gerbert of Aurillac Pope Sylvester II ( – 12 May 1003), originally known as Gerbert of Aurillac, was a French-born scholar and teacher who served as the bishop of Rome and ruled the Papal States from 999 to his death. He endorsed and promoted study of Arab and G ...
, philosophical thought was developed little in Europe for about two centuries. By the 12th century, however, scholastic thought was beginning to develop, leading to the rise of universities throughout Europe. These universities gathered what little Greek thought had been preserved over the centuries, including Boethius' commentaries on Aristotle. They also served as places of discussion for new ideas coming from new translations from Arabic throughout Europe. By the 12th century, Toledo, in Spain, had fallen from Arab hands in 1085, Sicily in 1091, and Jerusalem in 1099. The small population of the
Crusader Kingdoms The Crusader States, also known as Outremer, were four Catholic realms in the Middle East that lasted from 1098 to 1291. These feudal polities were created by the Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade through conquest and political in ...
contributed very little to the translation efforts, though Sicily, still largely Greek-speaking, was more productive. Sicilians, however, were less influenced by Arabic than the other regions and instead are noted more for their translations directly from Greek to Latin. Spain, on the other hand, was an ideal place for translation from Arabic to Latin because of a combination of rich Latin and Arab cultures living side by side. Unlike the interest in the literature and history of
classical antiquity Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
during the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
, 12th century translators sought new scientific, philosophical and, to a lesser extent, religious texts. The latter concern was reflected in a renewed interest in translations of the Greek Church Fathers into
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
, a concern with translating Jewish teachings from Hebrew, and an interest in the Qur'an and other
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
ic religious texts. In addition, some Arabic literature was also translated into Latin.


Translators in Italy

Just before the burst of translations in the 12th century, Constantine the African, a Christian from Carthage who studied medicine in
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
and ultimately became a monk at the monastery of Monte Cassino in Italy, translated medical works from Arabic. Constantine's many translations included Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopedia '' The Complete Book of the Medical Art'' (as ''Liber pantegni''),Bieber, Jerome B
Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources
, Santa Fe Community College.
the ancient medicine of Hippocrates and Galen as adapted by Arabic physicians, and the ''Isagoge ad Tegni Galeni''. by Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan. Other medical works he translated include
Isaac Israeli ben Solomon Isaac Israeli ben Solomon (Hebrew: יצחק בן שלמה הישראלי, ''Yitzhak ben Shlomo ha-Yisraeli''; Arabic: أبو يعقوب إسحاق بن سليمان الإسرائيلي, ''Abu Ya'qub Ishaq ibn Suleiman al-Isra'ili'') ( 832 &ndas ...
's ''Liber febribus, Liber de dietis universalibus et particularibus'' and ''Liber de urinis''; Ishaq ibn Imran's psychological work ''al-Maqala fi al-Malikhukiya'' as ''De melancolia''; and Ibn Al-Jazzar's '' De Gradibus, Viaticum, Liber de stomacho, De elephantiasi, De coitu'' and ''De oblivione''. Sicily had been part of the Byzantine Empire until 878, was under Muslim control from 878–1060, and came under Norman control between 1060 and 1090. As a consequence the Norman Kingdom of Sicily maintained a trilingual bureaucracy, which made it an ideal place for translations. Sicily also maintained relations with the Greek East, which allowed for exchange of ideas and manuscripts. A copy of
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...
's '' Almagest'' was brought back to Sicily by Henry Aristippus, as a gift from the Emperor to King William I. Aristippus, himself, translated
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
's '' Meno'' and '' Phaedo'' into Latin, but it was left to an anonymous student at Salerno to travel to Sicily and translate the ''Almagest'', as well as several works by Euclid, from Greek to Latin. Although the Sicilians generally translated directly from the Greek, when Greek texts were not available, they would translate from Arabic. Admiral Eugene of Sicily translated Ptolemy's '' Optics'' into Latin, drawing on his knowledge of all three languages in the task. Accursius of
Pistoja Pistoia (, is a city and '' comune'' in the Italian region of Tuscany, the capital of a province of the same name, located about west and north of Florence and is crossed by the Ombrone Pistoiese, a tributary of the River Arno. It is a ty ...
's translations included the works of Galen and Hunayn ibn Ishaq. Gerard de Sabloneta translated Avicenna's '' The Canon of Medicine'' and al-Razi's ''Almansor''. Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his '' Liber Abaci'' (1202). The ''Aphorismi'' by Masawaiyh (Mesue) was translated by an anonymous translator in late 11th or early 12th century Italy..
James of Venice James of Venice was a Catholic cleric and significant translator of Aristotle of the twelfth century. He has been called "the first systematic translator of Aristotle since Boethius." Not much is otherwise known about him. He was active in particu ...
, who probably spent some years in Constantinople, translated Aristotle's '' Posterior Analytics'' from Greek into Latin in the mid-12th century, thus making the complete Aristotelian logical corpus, the '' Organon'', available in Latin for the first time. In 13th century Padua, Bonacosa translated Averroes' medical work ''Kitab al-Kulliyyat'' as ''Colliget'',. and John of Capua translated the ''Kitab al-Taysir'' by
Ibn Zuhr Abū Marwān ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Zuhr ( ar, أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر), traditionally known by his Latinized name Avenzoar (; 1094–1162), was an Arab physician, surgeon, and poet. He was born at Seville in medieval And ...
(Avenzoar) as ''Theisir''. In 13th century Sicily, Faraj ben Salem translated Rhazes' ''al-Hawi'' as ''Continens'' as well as
Ibn Butlan Abū 'l-Ḥasan al-Muḫtār Yuwānnīs ibn al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAbdūn ibn Saʿdūn ibn Buṭlān ( ar, أبو الحسن المختار إيوانيس بن الحسن بن عبدون بن سعدون بن بطلان; ; ca. first quarter of the 11t ...
's ''
Tacuinum sanitatis ''Taqwīm aṣ‑Ṣiḥḥa'' ( ''Maintenance of Health'') is originally an 11th-century Arab medical treatise by Ibn Butlan of Baghdad. In the West, the work is known by the Latinisation of names, Latinized name taken by its translations: ''Ta ...
''. Also in 13th century Italy, Simon of Genoa and Abraham Tortuensis translated Abulcasis' ''
Al-Tasrif The ''Kitāb al-Taṣrīf'' ( ar, كتاب التصريف لمن عجز عن التأليف, lit=The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself), known in English as The Method of Medicine, is a 30-volume ...
'' as ''Liber servitoris'', Alcoati's ''Congregatio sive liber de oculis'', and the ''Liber de simplicibus medicinis'' by a pseudo-Serapion.


Translators on the Spanish frontier

As early as the end of the 10th century, European scholars travelled to Spain to study. Most notable among these was
Gerbert of Aurillac Pope Sylvester II ( – 12 May 1003), originally known as Gerbert of Aurillac, was a French-born scholar and teacher who served as the bishop of Rome and ruled the Papal States from 999 to his death. He endorsed and promoted study of Arab and G ...
(later Pope Sylvester II) who studied mathematics in the region of the
Spanish March The Hispanic March or Spanish March ( es, Marca Hispánica, ca, Marca Hispànica, Aragonese and oc, Marca Hispanica, eu, Hispaniako Marka, french: Marche d'Espagne), was a military buffer zone beyond the former province of Septimania, esta ...
around Barcelona. Translations, however, did not begin in Spain until after 1085 when Toledo was reconquered by Christians. The early translators in Spain focused heavily on scientific works, especially
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
and
astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
, with a second area of interest including the Qur'an and other
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
ic texts. Spanish collections included many scholarly works written in Arabic, so translators worked almost exclusively from Arabic, rather than Greek texts, often in cooperation with a local speaker of Arabic. One of the more important translation projects was sponsored by Peter the Venerable, the abbot of Cluny. In 1142 he called upon Robert of Ketton and
Herman of Carinthia Herman of Carinthia (1105/1110 – after 1154), also called Hermanus Dalmata or Sclavus Dalmata, Secundus, by his own words born in the "heart of Istria", was a philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, mathematician and translator of Arabic works int ...
, Peter of Poitiers, and a
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
known only as "Mohammed" to produce the first Latin translation of the Qur'an (the '' Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete''). Translations were produced throughout Spain and Provence.
Plato of Tivoli Plato Tiburtinus ( la, Plato Tiburtinus, "Plato of Tivoli"; fl. 12th century) was a 12th-century Italian mathematician, astronomer and translator who lived in Barcelona from 1116 to 1138. He is best known for translating Hebrew and Arabic docum ...
worked in
Catalonia Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy. Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the no ...
, Herman of Carinthia in Northern Spain and across the Pyrenees in Languedoc, Hugh of Santalla in Aragon, Robert of Ketton in Navarre and Robert of Chester in Segovia. The most important center of translation was the great cathedral library of Toledo. Plato of Tivoli's translations into Latin include
al-Battani Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Jābir ibn Sinān al-Raqqī al-Ḥarrānī aṣ-Ṣābiʾ al-Battānī ( ar, محمد بن جابر بن سنان البتاني) ( Latinized as Albategnius, Albategni or Albatenius) (c. 858 – 929) was an astron ...
's astronomical and trigonometrical work ''De motu stellarum'', Abraham bar Hiyya's ''Liber embadorum'', Theodosius of Bithynia's ''Spherica'', and Archimedes' '' Measurement of a Circle''. Robert of Chester's translations into Latin included al-Khwarizmi's '' Algebra'' and astronomical tables (also containing trigonometric tables). Abraham of Tortosa's translations include Ibn Sarabi's ( Serapion Junior) ''De Simplicibus'' and Abulcasis' ''
Al-Tasrif The ''Kitāb al-Taṣrīf'' ( ar, كتاب التصريف لمن عجز عن التأليف, lit=The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself), known in English as The Method of Medicine, is a 30-volume ...
'' as ''Liber Servitoris''. In 1126, Muhammad al-Fazari's ''Great Sindhind'' (based on the Sanskrit works of '' Surya Siddhanta'' and Brahmagupta's '' Brahmasphutasiddhanta'') was translated into Latin. In addition to philosophical and scientific literature, the Jewish writer Petrus Alphonsi translated a collection of 33 tales from Arabic literature into
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
. Some of the tales he drew on were from the '' Panchatantra'' and '' Arabian Nights'', such as the story cycle of " Sinbad the Sailor".


The Toledo School of Translators

Toledo, with a large population of Arabic-speaking Christians ( Mozarabs) had been an important center of learning since as early as the end of the 10th century, when European scholars traveled to Spain to study subjects that were not readily available in the rest of Europe. Among the early translators at Toledo were an Avendauth (who some have identified with Abraham ibn Daud), who translated Avicenna's encyclopedia, the '' Kitāb al-Shifa'' (''The Book of Healing''), in cooperation with Domingo Gundisalvo, Archdeacon of Cuéllar. The translating efforts at Toledo are often overemphasized into a “school of translation,” however the representation of Toledo translating activity creates a false sense that a formal school arose around the Archbishop Raymond. Only one translation, by John of Seville, can be definitively dedicated to the archbishop. It is more accurate to consider Toledo as a geographically bilingual environment where local interests were favorable to translation efforts, making it a practical and appealing location for translators to work. As a result, many translators became active in the area and Toledo became the focus of translating activity. However translating efforts were not properly organized until Toledo was reconquered by the Christian forces in 1085.
Raymond of Toledo Raymond is a male given name. It was borrowed into English from French (older French spellings were Reimund and Raimund, whereas the modern English and French spellings are identical). It originated as the Germanic ᚱᚨᚷᛁᚾᛗᚢᚾᛞ ( ...
started the first translation efforts at the library of the
Cathedral of Toledo , native_name_lang = , image = Toledo Cathedral, from Plaza del Ayuntamiento.jpg , imagesize = 300px , imagelink = , imagealt = , landscape = , caption ...
, where he led a team of translators that included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars, Madrasah teachers and monks from the
Order of Cluny Cluny Abbey (; , formerly also ''Cluni'' or ''Clugny''; ) is a former Benedictine monastery in Cluny, Saône-et-Loire, France. It was dedicated to Saint Peter. The abbey was constructed in the Romanesque architectural style, with three churches ...
. They worked in the translation of many works from Arabic into Castilian, from Castilian into Latin, or directly from Arabic into Latin or Greek, and also made available important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers who the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding of
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
. As a result of their activities, the cathedral became a translations center known as the ''Escuela de Traductores de Toledo'' (
Toledo School of Translators The Toledo School of Translators ( es, Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Judeo-Islamic philosophies and scientific w ...
), which was on a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture. The most productive of the Toledo translators at that time was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books, including
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...
's '' Almagest'', many of the works of
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
, including his Posterior Analytics,
Physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which ...
, On the Heavens and the World, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology, al-Khwarizmi's '' On Algebra and Almucabala'', Archimedes' ''
On the Measurement of the Circle ''Measurement of a Circle'' or ''Dimension of the Circle'' (Greek: , ''Kuklou metrēsis'') is a treatise that consists of three propositions by Archimedes, ca. 250 BCE. The treatise is only a fraction of what was a longer work. Propositions Prop ...
'',
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
, Euclid's '' Elements of Geometry'',
Jabir ibn Aflah Abū Muḥammad Jābir ibn Aflaḥ ( ar, أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح, la, Geber/Gebir; 1100–1150) was an Arab Muslim astronomer and mathematician from Seville, who was active in 12th century al-Andalus. His work ''Iṣlāḥ al- ...
's ''Elementa astronomica'', Al-Kindi's ''On Optics'',
al-Farghani Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī ( ar, أبو العبّاس أحمد بن محمد بن كثير الفرغاني 798/800/805–870), also known as Alfraganus in the West, was an astronomer in the Abbasid court ...
's ''On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions'',
al-Farabi Abu Nasr Muhammad Al-Farabi ( fa, ابونصر محمد فارابی), ( ar, أبو نصر محمد الفارابي), known in the West as Alpharabius; (c. 872 – between 14 December, 950 and 12 January, 951)PDF version was a renowned early Isl ...
's ''On the Classification of the Sciences'', the chemical and medical works of al-Razi (Rhazes), the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and the works of al-Zarkali,
Jabir ibn Aflah Abū Muḥammad Jābir ibn Aflaḥ ( ar, أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح, la, Geber/Gebir; 1100–1150) was an Arab Muslim astronomer and mathematician from Seville, who was active in 12th century al-Andalus. His work ''Iṣlāḥ al- ...
, the Banu Musa,
Abu Kamil Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam ibn Muḥammad Ibn Shujāʿ ( Latinized as Auoquamel, ar, أبو كامل شجاع بن أسلم بن محمد بن شجاع, also known as ''Al-ḥāsib al-miṣrī''—lit. "the Egyptian reckoner") (c. 850 – ...
, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, and Ibn al-Haytham (but not including the '' Book of Optics'', because the catalog of the works of Gerard of Cremona does not list that title; however the Risner compilation of ''Opticae Thesaurus Septem Libri'' also includes a work by Witelo and also ''de Crepusculis'', which Risner incorrectly attributed to Alhacen, and which ''was'' translated by Gerard of Cremona). The medical works he translated include
Haly Abenrudian Abu'l Hassan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri () (c. 988 - c. 1061) was an Arab of Egyptian origin who was a physician, astrologer and astronomer, born in Giza. He was a commentator on ancient Greek medicine, and in particular on Galen; his commentary o ...
's ''Expositio ad Tegni Galeni''; the ''Practica, Brevarium medicine'' by Yuhanna ibn Sarabiyun (Serapion);
Alkindus Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ar, أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; la, Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physi ...
' '' De Gradibus''; Rhazes' ''Liber ad Almansorem, Liber divisionum, Introductio in medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium'' and ''Practica puerorum'';
Isaac Israeli ben Solomon Isaac Israeli ben Solomon (Hebrew: יצחק בן שלמה הישראלי, ''Yitzhak ben Shlomo ha-Yisraeli''; Arabic: أبو يعقوب إسحاق بن سليمان الإسرائيلي, ''Abu Ya'qub Ishaq ibn Suleiman al-Isra'ili'') ( 832 &ndas ...
's ''De elementis'' and ''De definitionibus''; Abulcasis' ''
Al-Tasrif The ''Kitāb al-Taṣrīf'' ( ar, كتاب التصريف لمن عجز عن التأليف, lit=The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself), known in English as The Method of Medicine, is a 30-volume ...
'' as ''Chirurgia''; Avicenna's '' The Canon of Medicine'' as ''Liber Canonis''; and the ''Liber de medicamentis simplicus'' by Ibn Wafid (
Abenguefit ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn al-Wāfid al-Lakhmī () (c. 1008 – 1074), known in Latin Europe as , was an Andalusian Arab pharmacologist and physician from Toledo. He was the vizier of Al-Mamun of Toledo. His main work is ''Kitāb al-adwiya al ...
). At the close of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an (once again) and various medical works. He also translated Hunayn ibn Ishaq's medical work ''Liber isagogarum''. Under King Alfonso X of Castile, Toledo rose even higher in importance as a translation center. By insisting that the translated output was "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"), they reached a much wider audience both within Spain and in other European countries, as many scholars from places like Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo in order to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, brought back to their countries the acquired knowledge. Others were selected and hired with very high salaries by the King himself from many places in Spain, like Seville or Córdoba and foreign places like Gascony or Paris.
Michael Scot Michael Scot ( Latin: Michael Scotus; 1175 – ) was a Scottish mathematician and scholar in the Middle Ages. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and worked in Bologna and Toledo, where he learned Arabic. His patron was Frederick II o ...
(c. 1175–1232) translated the works of al-Betrugi (Alpetragius) in 1217,
al-Bitruji Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji () (also spelled Nur al-Din Ibn Ishaq al-Betrugi and Abu Ishâk ibn al-Bitrogi) (known in the West by the Latinized name of Alpetragius) (died c. 1204) was an Iberian-Arab astronomer and a Qadi in al-Andalus. Al-Biṭrūjī ...
's ''On the Motions of the Heavens'', and Averroes' influential commentaries on the scientific works of
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
.


Later translators

David the Jew (c. 1228–1245) translated the works of al-Razi (Rhazes) into Latin. Arnaldus de Villa Nova's (1235–1313) translations include the works of Galen and Avicenna (including his ''Maqala fi Ahkam al-adwiya al-qalbiya'' as ''De viribus cordis''), the ''De medicinis simplicibus'' by Abu al-Salt (Albuzali), and Costa ben Luca's ''De physicis ligaturis''. In 13th century Portugal, Giles of Santarém translated Rhazes' ''De secretis medicine, Aphorismi Rasis'' and Mesue's ''De secretis medicine''. In Murcia, Rufin of
Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
translated the ''Liber questionum medicinalium discentium in medicina'' by Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunen), and Dominicus Marrochinus translated the ''Epistola de cognitione infirmatum oculorum'' by Ali Ibn Isa (Jesu Haly). In 14th century
Lerida Lleida (, ; Spanish: Lérida ) is a city in the west of Catalonia, Spain. It is the capital city of the province of Lleida. Geographically, it is located in the Catalan Central Depression. It is also the capital city of the Segrià comarca, as w ...
, John Jacobi translated Alcoati's medical work ''Liber de la figura del uyl'' into
Catalan Catalan may refer to: Catalonia From, or related to Catalonia: * Catalan language, a Romance language * Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia Places * 13178 Catalan, asteroid #1 ...
and then Latin. Willem van Moerbeke, known in the English speaking world as William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) was a prolific medieval translator of philosophical, medical, and scientific texts from Greek into Latin. At the request of Aquinas, so it is assumed—the source document is not clear—he undertook a complete translation of the works of
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
or, for some portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the first translator of the ''Politics'' (c. 1260) from Greek into Latin. The reason for the request was that the many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation had originated in Spain (see Gerard of Cremona). These earlier translations were assumed to have been influenced by the rationalist Averroes, who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Moerbeke's translations have had a long history; they were already standard classics by the 14th century, when Henricus Hervodius put his finger on their enduring value: they were literal (''de verbo in verbo''), faithful to the spirit of Aristotle and ''without elegance.'' For several of William's translations, the Greek texts have since disappeared: without him the works would be lost. William also translated mathematical treatises by
Hero of Alexandria Hero of Alexandria (; grc-gre, Ἥρων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς, ''Heron ho Alexandreus'', also known as Heron of Alexandria ; 60 AD) was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. H ...
and Archimedes. Especially important was his translation of the ''Theological Elements'' of Proclus (made in 1268), because the ''Theological Elements'' is one of the fundamental sources of the revived
Neo-Platonic Neoplatonism is a strand of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a chain of thinkers. But there are some id ...
philosophical currents of the 13th century. The Vatican collection holds William's own copy of the translation he made of the greatest Hellenistic mathematician, Archimedes, with commentaries of
Eutocius Eutocius of Ascalon (; el, Εὐτόκιος ὁ Ἀσκαλωνίτης; 480s – 520s) was a Palestinian-Greek mathematician who wrote commentaries on several Archimedean treatises and on the Apollonian ''Conics''. Life and work Little is ...
, which was made in 1269 at the papal court in Viterbo. William consulted two of the best Greek manuscripts of Archimedes, both of which have since disappeared.


Other European translators

Adelard of Bath Adelard of Bath ( la, Adelardus Bathensis; 1080? 1142–1152?) was a 12th-century English natural philosopher. He is known both for his original works and for translating many important Arabic and Greek scientific works of astrology, astronom ...
's (
fl. ''Floruit'' (; abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for "they flourished") denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indicatin ...
1116–1142) translations into Latin included al-Khwarizmi's astronomical and trigonometrical work ''Astronomical tables'' and his arithmetical work ''Liber ysagogarum Alchorismi'', the ''Introduction to Astrology'' of Abu Ma'shar, as well as Euclid's ''Elements''. Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such as Peter Alfonsi and Walcher of Malvern who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Spain.
Abu Kamil Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam ibn Muḥammad Ibn Shujāʿ ( Latinized as Auoquamel, ar, أبو كامل شجاع بن أسلم بن محمد بن شجاع, also known as ''Al-ḥāsib al-miṣrī''—lit. "the Egyptian reckoner") (c. 850 – ...
's ''Algebra'' was also translated into Latin during this period, but the translator of the work is unknown..
Alfred of Sareshel Alfred of Sarashel, also known as Alfred the Philosopher, Alfred the Englishman or Alfredus Anglicus, was born in England some time in the 12th century and died in the 13th century. Not much more is known about his life apart from that he moved t ...
's (c. 1200–1227) translations include the works of Nicolaus of Damascus and Hunayn ibn Ishaq. Antonius Frachentius Vicentinus' translations include the works of Avicenna, Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Armengaud Blaise's translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and Maimonides. Berengarius of Valentia translated the works of Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis). Drogon (Azagont) translated the works of al-Kindi. Farragut (Faradj ben Salam) translated the works of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh (Mesue), and al-Razi (Rhazes). Andreas Alphagus Bellnensis' translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes, Serapion the Younger, Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar. In 13th century Montpellier, Profatius and Bernardus Honofredi translated the ''Kitab alaghdiya'' by
Ibn Zuhr Abū Marwān ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Zuhr ( ar, أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر), traditionally known by his Latinized name Avenzoar (; 1094–1162), was an Arab physician, surgeon, and poet. He was born at Seville in medieval And ...
(Avenzoar) as ''De regimine sanitatis''; and Armengaud translated the ''al-Urjuza fi al-tibb'', a work combining the medical writings of Avicenna and Averroes, as ''Cantica cum commento''. Other texts translated during this period include a number of Alchemy and chemistry in Islam, alchemical works, the first of which appears to have been ''The Book of the Composition of Alchemy'' (''Liber de compositione alchemiae'', translated by Robert of Chester in 1144 and containing a dialogue between Morienus and Calid, Khālid ibn Yazīd). Also notable are translations from alchemical works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), such as the ''Book of the Seventy'' (Arabic: ''Kitāb al-Sabʿīn'', translated by Gerard of Cremona, before 1187, as ''Liber de septuaginta''), ''The Great Book of Mercy'' (Arabic: ''Kitāb al-Raḥma al-kabīr'', anonymously translated as ''Liber misericordiae''), and ''The Book of the Kingship'' (Arabic: ''Kitāb al-mulk'', translated as ''Liber regni''). Another work translated during this period was ''De Proprietatibus Elementorum'', an Islamic science, Arabic work on Islamic geography, geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle. A pseudo- Mesue's ''De consolatione medicanarum simplicum, Antidotarium, Grabadin'' was also translated into Latin by an anonymous translator.


Vernacular languages

In the 12th century in southern France and Italy, many Arabic scientific texts were translated into Hebrew. France and Italy had large Jewish communities where there was little knowledge of Arabic, requiring translations to provide access to Arabic science. The translation of Arabic texts into Hebrew was used by translators, such as Profatius Judaeus, as an intermediate step between translation from Arabic into Latin. This practice was most widely used from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries..


List of translations

This list is of translations after c. 1100 of works written originally in Greek. * Hippocrates and school (5th, 4th centuries B.C.) **''Aphorisms'': Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, 12th century **Various treatises: Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century ** William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260 *
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
(384-322 B.C.) **'' Posterior Analytics'' (a founding document of the ''logica nova''): Two versions from Greek, 12th century; from Arabic, Toledo 12th century **''Meteorology (Aristotle), Meteorologica'' (Book 4): Henry Aristippus, Henricus Aristippus, from Greek, Sicily c. 1156 **''Physics (Aristotle), Physica'', ''On Generation and Corruption, De Generatione et Corruptione'', ''Parva Naturalia'', ''Metaphysics (Aristotle), Metaphysica'' (first 4 books), ''On the Soul, De Anima'': from Greek, 12th century **''Meteorology (Aristotle), Meteorologica'' (Books 1-3), ''Physics (Aristotle), Physica'', ''On the Heavens, De Cælo et Mundo'', ''On Generation and Corruption, De Generatione et Corruptione'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century **''De Animalibus'' (''History of animals, Historia animalium'', ''Parts of animals, De partibus animalium'', ''Generation of animals, De generatione animalium''):
Michael Scot Michael Scot ( Latin: Michael Scotus; 1175 – ) was a Scottish mathematician and scholar in the Middle Ages. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and worked in Bologna and Toledo, where he learned Arabic. His patron was Frederick II o ...
, from Kitāb al-Hayawān, a 9th-century Arabic translation, Spain c. 1217-20 **Almost complete works: William of Moerbeke, new or revised translations from Greek c. 1260-71 * Euclid (c. 330-260 B.C.) **''Euclid's Elements, Elements'' (15 books, 13 genuine):
Adelard of Bath Adelard of Bath ( la, Adelardus Bathensis; 1080? 1142–1152?) was a 12th-century English natural philosopher. He is known both for his original works and for translating many important Arabic and Greek scientific works of astrology, astronom ...
from Arabic, c. 1126; revised by Campanus of Novara, c. 1254 **''Euclid's Optics, Optica'' and ''Catoptrics, Catoptrica'': from Greek, probably Sicily *Apollonius of Perga, Apollonius (3rd century B.C.) **''Conica'': perhaps Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, 12th century * Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) **''Measurement of a Circle, De Mensura Circuli'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century **''On Floating Bodies, De Iis quæ in Humido Vehuntur (On Floating Bodies)'': William of Moerbeke from Greek 1269 *Diocles (mathematician), Diocles ( 2nd century B.C.) **''De Speculis Comburentibus (On Burning glass, Burning Mirrors)'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century *
Hero of Alexandria Hero of Alexandria (; grc-gre, Ἥρων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς, ''Heron ho Alexandreus'', also known as Heron of Alexandria ; 60 AD) was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. H ...
(1st century B.C.?) **''Pneumatica'': from Greek, Sicily 12th century **''Catoptrica'' (attributed to Ptolemy in Middle Ages): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260 *pseudo-Aristotle **''Mechanics (Pseudo-Aristotle), Mechanica'': from Greek, early 13th century; Bartholomew of Messina, from Greek, Sicily c.1260 **On Plants, ''De Plantis'' or ''De Vegetabilibus'' (now attributed to Nicolaus of Damascus, 1st century B.C.):
Alfred of Sareshel Alfred of Sarashel, also known as Alfred the Philosopher, Alfred the Englishman or Alfredus Anglicus, was born in England some time in the 12th century and died in the 13th century. Not much more is known about his life apart from that he moved t ...
, from Arabic, Spain probably before 1200 *pseudo-Euclid **''Liber Euclidis de Ponderoso et Levi'' (on statics): from Arabic, 12th century * Galen (129-200 A.D.) **Various treatises: Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, c. 1185 **Various treatises: Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century **Various treatises: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1277 *
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...
(2nd century A.D.) **'' Almagest'': from Greek, Sicily c. 1160; Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 1175 **''Optica'': Eugenius of Palermo, from Arabic, c. 1154 *Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. 193 -217 A.D.) **''Commentary on the ''Meteorology (Aristotle), Meteorologica: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century **''De Motu et Tempore'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century * Proclus (412-485 A.D.) **''Physica Elementa (De motu)'': from Greek, Sicily 12th century **''Elements of Theology'': from Greek by William of Moerbeke, 1268 **''Three opuscules'' (''On Providence,'' ''On providence and Fate,'' and ''On the Existence of Evil''): from Greek by William of Moerbeke **''Commentary on Plato's Parmenides'': from Greek by William of Moerbeke *Simplicius of Cilicia, Simplicius (6th century A.D.) **Part of ''Commentary on Aristotle's ''On the Heavens, De Cælo et Mundo: Robert Grosseteste, from Greek, 13th century **''Commentary on Aristotle's ''Physics (Aristotle), Physica: from Greek 13th century **''Commentary on Aristotle's ''De Cælo et Mundo: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1271 **''Commentary on Aristotle's ''Categories: William of Moerbeke, from Greek


See also

*
Toledo School of Translators The Toledo School of Translators ( es, Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Judeo-Islamic philosophies and scientific w ...
* Renaissance of the 12th century * Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe * Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete * List of translators * Graeco-Arabic translation movement


Notes


References

* * * * * * * (see especially chapter 9, "The Translators from Greek and Arabic") * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Robert of Ketton's Qu'ran, as edited by Bibliander (1550 revised edition)
in Robert I. Burns, ed., ''Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth-Century Renaissance Culture''
Makdisi - Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West
{{DEFAULTSORT:Latin Translations Of The 12th Century History of translation 12th-century Latin literature Translations into Latin