Language revitalization, also referred to as language revival or reversing language shift, is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one. Those involved can include linguists, cultural or community groups, or governments. Some argue for a distinction between language revival (the resurrection of an
extinct language with no existing native speakers) and language revitalization (the rescue of a "dying" language). There has only been one successful instance of a complete language revival,
the Hebrew language, creating a new generation of native speakers without any pre-existing native speakers as a model.
Languages targeted for language revitalization include those whose use and prominence is
severely limited. Sometimes various tactics of language revitalization can even be used to try to revive
extinct languages. Though the goals of language revitalization vary greatly from case to case, they typically involve attempting to expand the number of speakers and use of a language, or trying to maintain the current level of use to protect the language from extinction or
language death.
Reasons for revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as the exploitation of indigenous natural resources, political danger such as genocide, or cultural danger/assimilation. In recent times alone, it is estimated that more than 2000 languages have already become extinct. The UN estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over the next hundred years most of these will become extinct.
These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure". A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with the land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image.
Language revitalization is also closely tied to the linguistic field of
language documentation
Language documentation (also: documentary linguistics) is a subfield of linguistics which aims to describe the grammar and use of human languages. It aims to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given spee ...
. In this field, linguists try to create a complete record of a language's grammar, vocabulary, and linguistic features. This practice can often lead to more concern for the revitalization of a specific language on study. Furthermore, the task of documentation is often taken on with the goal of revitalization in mind.
Degrees of language endangerment
Five point scale
One possible five-point scale is as follows:
* Healthy/strong: all generations use language in variety of settings
* Weakening/sick: spoken by older people; not fully used by younger generations
* Moribund/dying: only a few adult speakers remain; no longer used as
native language by children
* Dead: no longer spoken as a native language
* Extinct: no longer spoken and has few or no written records
Another scale
Another scale for identifying degrees of language endangerment is used in a 2003 paper ("Language Vitality and Endangerment") commissioned by
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
from an international group of linguists. The linguists, among other goals and priorities, create a scale with six degrees for language vitality and endangerment.
[http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Language_vitality_and_endangerment_EN.pdf ] They also propose nine factors or criteria (six of which use the six-degree scale) to "characterize a language’s overall sociolinguistic situation".
The nine factors with their respective scales are:
# Intergenerational language transmission
#* safe: all generations use the language
#* unsafe: some children use the language in all settings, all children use the language in some settings
#* definitively endangered: few children speak the language; predominantly spoken by the parental generation and older
#* severely endangered: spoken by older generations; not used by the parental generation and younger
#* critically endangered: few speakers remain and are mainly from the great grandparental generation
#* extinct: no living speakers
# Absolute number of speakers
# Proportion of speakers within the total population
#* safe: the language is spoken by 100% of the population
#* unsafe: the language is spoken by nearly 100% of the population
#* definitively endangered: the language is spoken by a majority of the population
#* severely endangered: the language is spoken by less than 50% of the population
#* critically endangered: the language has very few speakers
#* extinct: no living speakers
# Trends in existing language domains
#* universal use (safe): spoken in all domains; for all functions
#* multilingual parity (unsafe): multiple languages (2+) are spoken in most social domains; for most functions
#* dwindling domains (definitively endangered): mainly spoken in home domains and is in competition with the dominant language; for many functions
#* limited or formal domains (severely endangered): spoken in limited social domains; for several functions
#* highly limited domains (critically endangered): spoken in highly restricted domains; for minimal functions
#* extinct: no domains; no functions
# Response to new domains and media
#* dynamic (safe): spoken in all new domains
#* robust/active (unsafe): spoken in most new domains
#* receptive (definitively endangered): spoken in many new domains
#* coping (severely endangered): spoken in some new domains
#* minimal (critically endangered): spoken in minimal new domains
#* inactive (extinct): spoken in no new domains
# Materials for language education and literacy
#* safe: established orthography and extensive access to educational materials
#* unsafe: access to educational materials; children developing literacy; not used by administration
#* definitively endangered: access to educational materials exist at school; literacy in language is not promoted
#* severely endangered: literacy materials exist however are not present in school curriculum
#* critically endangered: orthography is known and some written materials exist
#* extinct: no orthography is known
# Governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies (including official status and use)
#* equal support (safe): all languages are equally protected
#* differentiated support (unsafe): primarily protected for private domains
#* passive assimilation (definitively endangered): no explicit protective policy; language use dwindles in public domain
#* active assimilation (severely endangered): government discourages use of language; no governmental protection of language in any domain
#* forced assimilation (critically endangered): language is not recognized or protected; government recognized another official language
#* prohibition (extinct): use of language is banned
# Community members' attitudes towards their own language
#* safe: language is revered, valued, and promoted by whole community
#* unsafe: language maintenance is supported by most of the community
#* definitively endangered: language maintenance is supported by much of the community; the rest are indifferent or support language loss
#* severely endangered: language maintenance is supported by some of the community; the rest are indifferent or support language loss
#* critically endangered: language maintenance is supported by only a few members of the community; the rest are indifferent or support language loss
#* extinct: complete apathy towards language maintenance; prefer dominant language
# Amount and quality of documentation.
#* superlative (safe): extensive audio, video, media, and written documentation of the language
#* good (unsafe): audio, video, media, and written documentation all exist; a handful of each
#* fair (definitively endangered): some audio and video documentation exists; adequate written documentation
#* fragmentary (severely endangered): minimal audio and video documentation exists at low quality; minimal written documentation
#* inadequate (critically endangered): only a handful of written documentation exists
#* undocumented (extinct): no documentation exists
Theory
One of the most important preliminary steps in language revitalization/recovering involves establishing the degree to which a particular language has been “dislocated”. This helps involved parties find the best way to assist or revive the language.
Steps in reversing language shift
There are many different theories or models that attempt to lay out a plan for language revitalization. One of these is provided by celebrated linguist
Joshua Fishman
Joshua Fishman (Yiddish: שיקל פֿישמאַן — Shikl Fishman; July 18, 1926 – March 1, 2015) was an American linguist who specialized in the sociology of language, language planning, bilingual education, and language and ethnicity.
...
.
Fishman's model for reviving threatened (or sleeping) languages, or for making them sustainable, consists of an eight-stage process. Efforts should be concentrated on the earlier stages of restoration until they have been consolidated before proceeding to the later stages. The eight stages are:
#Acquisition of the language by adults, who in effect act as language apprentices (recommended where most of the remaining speakers of the language are elderly and socially isolated from other speakers of the language).
#Create a socially integrated population of active speakers (or users) of the language (at this stage it is usually best to concentrate mainly on the spoken language rather than the written language).
#In localities where there are a reasonable number of people habitually using the language, encourage the informal use of the language among people of all age groups and within families and bolster its daily use through the establishment of local neighbourhood institutions in which the language is encouraged, protected and (in certain contexts at least) used exclusively.
#In areas where oral competence in the language has been achieved in all age groups, encourage literacy in the language, but in a way that does not depend upon assistance from (or goodwill of) the state education system.
#Where the state permits it, and where numbers warrant, encourage the use of the language in compulsory state education.
#Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage the use of the language in the workplace.
#Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage the use of the language in local government services and mass media.
#Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage use of the language in higher education, government, etc.
This model of language revival is intended to direct efforts to where they are most effective and to avoid wasting energy trying to achieve the later stages of recovery when the earlier stages have not been achieved. For instance, it is probably wasteful to campaign for the use of a language on television or in government services if hardly any families are in the habit of using the language.
Additionally, Tasaku Tsunoda describes a range of different techniques or methods that speakers can use to try to revitalize a language, including techniques to revive extinct languages and maintain weak ones. The techniques he lists are often limited to the current vitality of the language.
He claims that the
immersion
Immersion may refer to:
The arts
* "Immersion", a 2012 story by Aliette de Bodard
* ''Immersion'', a French comic book series by Léo Quievreux#Immersion, Léo Quievreux
* Immersion (album), ''Immersion'' (album), the third album by Australian gro ...
method cannot be used to revitalize an extinct or moribund language. In contrast, the master-apprentice method of one-on-one transmission on language proficiency can be used with moribund languages. Several other methods of revitalization, including those that rely on technology such as recordings or media, can be used for languages in any state of viability.
Factors in successful language revitalization
David Crystal
David Crystal, (born 6 July 1941) is a British linguist, academic, and prolific author best known for his works on linguistics and the English language.
Family
Crystal was born in Lisburn, Northern Ireland, on 6 July 1941 after his mother had ...
, in his book ''Language Death'', proposes that language revitalization is more likely to be successful if its speakers
* increase the
language's prestige within the dominant community;
* increase their wealth and income;
* increase their legitimate power in the eyes of the dominant community;
* have a strong presence in the education system;
* can write down the language;
* can use electronic technology.
In her book, ''Endangered Languages: An Introduction,''
Sarah Thomason
Sarah Grey Thomason (known as "Sally") is an American scholar of linguistics. She is a prolific contributor to academic journals and publications specializing in the field of linguistics, as well as a guest lecturer at different universities arou ...
notes the success of revival efforts for modern Hebrew and the relative success of revitalizing Maori in New Zealand (see ''Specific Examples'' below). One notable factor these two examples share is that the children were raised in fully immersive environments. In the case of Hebrew, it was on early collective-communities called
kibbutzim. For the Maori language In New Zealand, this was done through a
language nest
A language nest is an immersion-based approach to language revitalization in early-childhood education. Language nests originated in New Zealand in the 1980s, as a part of the Māori-language revival in that country. The term "language nest" is ...
.
Revival linguistics
Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposes "Revival Linguistics" as a new linguistic discipline and paradigm.
According to Zuckermann, "revival linguistics combines scientific studies of native language acquisition and foreign language learning. After all, language reclamation is the most extreme case of second-language learning. Revival linguistics complements the established area of
documentary linguistics, which records endangered languages before they fall asleep."
Zuckermann proposes that "revival linguistics changes the field of historical linguistics by, for instance, weakening the family
tree model
In historical linguistics, the tree model (also Stammbaum, genetic, or cladistic model) is a model of the evolution of languages analogous to the concept of a family tree, particularly a phylogenetic tree in the biological evolution of species. ...
, which implies that a language has only one parent."
There are disagreements in the field of language revitalization as to the degree that revival should concentrate on maintaining the traditional language, versus allowing simplification or widespread borrowing from the
majority language
A national language is a language (or language variant, e.g. dialect) that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with a nation. There is little consistency in the use of this term. One or more languages spoken as first languages in the te ...
.
Compromise
Zuckermann acknowledges the presence of "local peculiarities and idiosyncrasies"
[Ghil'ad Zuckermann]
"Stop, revive and survive"
''The Australian, Higher Education'', June 6, 2012. but suggests that
"there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts. Mastering them would help revivalists and first nations' leaders to work more efficiently. For example, it is easier to resurrect basic vocabulary and verbal conjugations than sounds and word order. Revivalists should be realistic and abandon discouraging, counter-productive slogans such as "Give us authenticity or give us death!"
Nancy Dorian has pointed out that conservative attitudes toward
loanwords and grammatical changes often hamper efforts to revitalize endangered languages (as with
Tiwi in Australia), and that a division can exist between educated revitalizers, interested in historicity, and remaining speakers interested in locally authentic idiom (as has sometimes occurred with
Irish
Irish may refer to:
Common meanings
* Someone or something of, from, or related to:
** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe
***Éire, Irish language name for the isle
** Northern Ireland, a constituent unit ...
). Some have argued that structural compromise may, in fact, enhance the prospects of survival, as may have been the case with English in the post-
Norman period
The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Norman, Breton, Flemish, and French troops, all led by the Duke of Normandy, later styled William the Conque ...
.
Traditionalist
Other linguists have argued that when language revitalization borrows heavily from the majority language, the result is a new language, perhaps a
creole or
pidgin. For example, the existence of "Neo-Hawaiian" as a separate language from "Traditional Hawaiian" has been proposed, due to the heavy influence of English on every aspect of the revived Hawaiian language. This has also been proposed for Irish, with a sharp division between "Urban Irish" (spoken by second-language speakers) and traditional Irish (as spoken as a first language in
Gaeltacht areas). Ó Béarra stated: "
ofollow the syntax and idiomatic conventions of English,
ould beproducing what amounts to little more than English in Irish drag." With regard to the then-moribund
Manx language, the scholar T. F. O'Rahilly stated, "When a language surrenders itself to foreign idiom, and when all its speakers become bilingual, the penalty is death." Neil McRae has stated that the uses of
Scottish Gaelic are becoming increasingly tokenistic, and native Gaelic idiom is being lost in favor of artificial terms created by second-language speakers.
Specific examples
The total revival of a
dead language (in the sense of having no
native speaker
Native Speaker may refer to:
* ''Native Speaker'' (novel), a 1995 novel by Chang-Rae Lee
* ''Native Speaker'' (album), a 2011 album by Canadian band Braids
* Native speaker, a person using their first language or mother tongue
{{disambigua ...
s) to become the shared means of communication of a self-sustaining community of several million
first language speakers has happened only once, in the case of
Hebrew, now the
national language of
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
. In this case, there was a unique set of historical and cultural characteristics that facilitated the revival. (See
Revival of the Hebrew language
The revival of the Hebrew language took place in Europe and Palestine toward the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, through which the language's usage changed from the sacred language of Judaism to a spoken and written language ...
.) Hebrew, once largely a
liturgical language
A sacred language, holy language or liturgical language is any language that is cultivated and used primarily in church service or for other religious reasons by people who speak another, primary language in their daily lives.
Concept
A sacr ...
, was re-established as a means of everyday communication by Jews migrating to what is now the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories, starting in the nineteenth century. It is the world's most famous and successful example of language revitalization.
In a related development,
literary language
A literary language is the form (register) of a language used in written literature, which can be either a nonstandard dialect or a standardized variety of the language. Literary language sometimes is noticeably different from the spoken langua ...
s without
native speaker
Native Speaker may refer to:
* ''Native Speaker'' (novel), a 1995 novel by Chang-Rae Lee
* ''Native Speaker'' (album), a 2011 album by Canadian band Braids
* Native speaker, a person using their first language or mother tongue
{{disambigua ...
s enjoyed great prestige and practical utility as
lingua francas, often counting millions of fluent speakers at a time. In many such cases, a decline in the use of the literary language, sometimes precipitous, was later accompanied by a strong renewal. This happened, for example, in the revival of
Classical Latin
Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was used from 75 BC to the 3rd century AD, when it developed into Late Latin. In some later period ...
in the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
, and the revival of
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
in the early centuries AD. An analogous phenomenon in contemporary
Arabic-speaking areas is the expanded use of the literary language (
Modern Standard Arabic, a form of the
Classical Arabic of the 6th century AD). This is taught to all educated speakers and is used in radio broadcasts, formal discussions, etc.
In addition, literary languages have sometimes risen to the level of becoming
first languages of very large language communities. An example is standard
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
, which originated as a literary language based on the language of 13th-century
Florence, especially as used by such important Florentine writers as
Dante
Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian people, Italian Italian poetry, poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', origin ...
,
Petrarch and
Boccaccio
Giovanni Boccaccio (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so well known as a writer that he was some ...
. This language existed for several centuries primarily as a literary vehicle, with few native speakers; even as late as 1861, on the eve of
Italian unification, the language only counted about 500,000 speakers (many non-native), out of a total population of . The subsequent success of the language has been through conscious development, where speakers of any of the numerous
Italian languages
The languages of Italy include Italian, which serves as the country's national language, in its standard and regional forms, as well as numerous local and regional languages, most of which, like Italian, belong to the broader Romance gro ...
were taught standard Italian as a
second language and subsequently imparted it to their children, who learned it as a first language. Of course this came at the expense of local Italian languages, most of which are now
endangered. Success was enjoyed in similar circumstances by
High German
The High German dialects (german: hochdeutsche Mundarten), or simply High German (); not to be confused with Standard High German which is commonly also called ''High German'', comprise the varieties of German spoken south of the Benrath and ...
,
standard Czech,
Castilian Spanish and other languages.
Africa
The
Coptic language began its decline when Arabic became the predominant language in Egypt.
Pope Shenouda III established the Coptic Language Institute in December 1976 in Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in
Cairo for the purpose of reviving the Coptic language.
Americas
North America
In recent years, a growing number of
Native American tribes have been trying to revitalize their languages.
For example, there are apps (including phrases, word lists and dictionaries) in many Native languages including
Cree,
Cherokee
The Cherokee (; chr, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, translit=Aniyvwiyaʔi or Anigiduwagi, or chr, ᏣᎳᎩ, links=no, translit=Tsalagi) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, t ...
,
Chickasaw
The Chickasaw ( ) are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee as well in southwestern Kentucky. Their language is classif ...
,
Lakota
Lakota may refer to:
* Lakota people, a confederation of seven related Native American tribes
*Lakota language, the language of the Lakota peoples
Place names
In the United States:
* Lakota, Iowa
* Lakota, North Dakota, seat of Nelson County
* La ...
,
Ojibwe,
Oneida,
Massachusett,
Navajo,
Halq'emeylem,
Gwych'in, and
Lushootseed
Lushootseed (txʷəlšucid, dxʷləšúcid), also Puget Salish, Puget Sound Salish or Skagit-Nisqually, is a language made up of a dialect continuum of several Salish tribes of modern-day Washington state. Lushootseed is one of the Coast Salis ...
.
Wampanoag, a language spoken by the people of the same name in Massachusetts, underwent a language revival project led by
Jessie Little Doe Baird, a trained linguist. Members of the tribe use the extensive written records that exist in their language, including a translation of the Bible and legal documents, in order to learn and teach Wampanoag. The project has seen children speaking the language fluently for the first time in over 100 years. In addition, there are currently attempts at reviving the
Chochenyo language of California, which had become extinct.
= Tlingit
=
Similar to other Indigenous languages,
Tlingit
The Tlingit ( or ; also spelled Tlinkit) are indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their language is the Tlingit language (natively , pronounced ), is critically endangered.
Less than 100 fluent Elders continue to exist.
From 2013 to 2014, the language activist, author, and teacher, Sʔímlaʔxw Michele K. Johnson from the Syilx Nation, attempted to teach two hopeful learners of Tlingit in the Yukon.
Her methods included textbook creation, sequenced immersion curriculum, and film assessment.
The aim was to assist in the creation of adult speakers that are of parent-age, so that they too can begin teaching the language. In 2020, X̱ʼunei
Lance Twitchell led an Tlingit online class with
Outer Coast College
Outer Coast College is a small, private, liberal arts college in development in Sitka, Alaska. It is currently in the accreditation process with the goal of expansion into a two-year undergraduate program.
History
After Sheldon Jackson College ...
. Dozens of students participated. He is an associate professor of Alaska Native Languages in the School of Arts and Sciences at the
University of Alaska Southeast which offers a minor in Tlingit language and an emphasis on Alaska Native Languages and Studies within a Bachelorʼs degree in Liberal Arts.
South America
Kichwa
Kichwa (, , also Spanish ) is a Quechuan language that includes all Quechua varieties of Ecuador and Colombia ('' Inga''), as well as extensions into Peru. It has an estimated half million speakers.
The most widely spoken dialects are Chimbor ...
is the variety of the
Quechua
Quechua may refer to:
*Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru
*Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language
**So ...
language spoken in
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ' ...
and is one of the most widely spoken indigenous languages in South America. Despite this fact, Kichwa is a threatened language, mainly because of the expansion of Spanish in South America. One community of original Kichwa speakers, Lagunas, was one of the first indigenous communities to switch to the Spanish language.
According to King, this was because of the increase of trade and business with the large Spanish-speaking town nearby. The Lagunas people assert that it was not for cultural assimilation purposes, as they value their cultural identity highly.
However, once this contact was made, language for the Lagunas people shifted through generations, to Kichwa and Spanish bilingualism and now is essentially Spanish monolingualism. The feelings of the Lagunas people present a dichotomy with language use, as most of the Lagunas members speak Spanish exclusively and only know a few words in Kichwa.
The prospects for Kichwa language revitalization are not promising, as parents depend on schooling for this purpose, which is not nearly as effective as continual language exposure in the home.
Schooling in the Lagunas community, although having a conscious focus on teaching Kichwa, consists of mainly passive interaction, reading, and writing in Kichwa. In addition to grassroots efforts, national language revitalization organizations, like
CONAIE
The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador ( es, Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Ecuador) or, more commonly, CONAIE, is Ecuador's largest indigenous rights organization. The Ecuadorian Indian movement under the le ...
, focus attention on non-Spanish speaking indigenous children, who represent a large minority in the country. Another national initiative, Bilingual Intercultural Education Project (PEBI), was ineffective in language revitalization because instruction was given in Kichwa and Spanish was taught as a second language to children who were almost exclusively Spanish monolinguals.
Although some techniques seem ineffective, Kendall A. King provides several suggestions:
# Exposure to and acquisition of the language at a young age.
#
# Extreme immersion techniques.
#
# Multiple and diverse efforts to reach adults.
#
# Flexibility and coordination in planning and implementation
#
# Directly addressing different varieties of the language.
#
# Planners stressing that language revitalization is a long process
#
# Involving as many people as possible
#
# Parents using the language with their children
#
# Planners and advocates approaching the problem from all directions.
Specific suggestions include imparting an elevated perception of the language in schools, focusing on grassroots efforts both in school and the home, and maintaining national and regional attention.
Asia
Hebrew
The
revival of the Hebrew language
The revival of the Hebrew language took place in Europe and Palestine toward the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, through which the language's usage changed from the sacred language of Judaism to a spoken and written language ...
is
the only truly successful example of a revived dead language.
The
Hebrew language survived into the medieval period as the language of
Jewish liturgy
Jewish liturgy is the customary public worship of Judaism. The liturgy may include responsive reading, songs, or music, as found in the Torah and Haftorah, the Amidah, piyyutim, and Psalms. Singing or reading the Psalms has a special role in th ...
and
rabbinic literature. With the rise of
Zionism in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, becoming primarily a spoken
lingua franca among the early Jewish immigrants to
Ottoman Palestine and received the official status in the 1922 constitution of the
British Mandate for Palestine and subsequently of the
State of Israel.
Sanskrit
The revival of
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
happened in India. In the 2001 census of India, 14,135 people claimed Sanskrit as their mother tongue. It increased to 24,821 people in the 2011 census of India. Sanskrit has experienced a recorded growth of over 70 per cent in one decade due to the
Sanskrit revival. Many Sanskrit speaking villages were also developed. However, Sanskrit speakers still account for just 0.00198 percent of India's total population.
Soyot
The
Soyot language of the small-numbered
Soyots in
Buryatia,
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
, one of
Siberian Turkic languages, has been reconstructed and a Soyot-Buryat-Russian dictionary has been published in 2002. The language is currently taught in some elementary schools.
Ainu
The
Ainu language of the indigenous
Ainu people of northern Japan is currently moribund, but efforts are underway to revive it. A 2006 survey of the
Hokkaido
is Japan's second largest island and comprises the largest and northernmost prefecture, making up its own region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō from Honshu; the two islands are connected by the undersea railway Seikan Tunnel.
The lar ...
Ainu indicated that only 4.6% of Ainu surveyed were able to converse in or "speak a little" Ainu. As of 2001, Ainu was not taught in any elementary or secondary schools in Japan, but was offered at numerous language centres and universities in Hokkaido, as well as at Tokyo's
Chiba University.
Manchu
In China, the
Manchu language is one of the most endangered languages, with speakers only in three small areas of Manchuria remaining. Some enthusiasts are trying to revive the language of
their ancestors using available dictionaries and textbooks, and even occasional visits to
Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County in
Xinjiang, where the related
Xibe language
The Sibe language (, also Sibo, Xibe) is a Tungusic language spoken by members of the Sibe minority of Xinjiang, in Northwest China.
Classification
Sibe is conventionally viewed as a separate language within the southern group of Tungusic lang ...
is still spoken natively.
Spanish
In the Philippines, a local variety of Spanish that was primarily based on
Mexican Spanish was the ''lingua franca'' of the country since Spanish colonization in 1565 and was an official language alongside
Filipino
Filipino may refer to:
* Something from or related to the Philippines
** Filipino language, standardized variety of 'Tagalog', the national language and one of the official languages of the Philippines.
** Filipinos, people who are citizens of th ...
(standardized
Tagalog) and
English until 1987, following a ratification of a new constitution, where it was re-designated as a voluntary language. As a result of its loss as an official language and years of marginalization at the official level during and after American colonization, the use of Spanish amongst the overall populace decreased dramatically and became moribund, with the remaining native speakers left being mostly elderly people. The language has seen a gradual revival, however, due to official promotion under the administration of former President
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. Most notably, Resolution No. 2006-028 reinstated Spanish as a mandatory subject in secondary schools and universities. Results were immediate as the job demand for Spanish speakers had increased since 2008. As of 2010, the
Instituto Cervantes
Instituto Cervantes (the Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide nonprofit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. It is named after Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616), the author of ''Don Quixote'' and perhaps the most important figur ...
in Manila reported the number of Spanish-speakers in the country with native or non-native knowledge at approximately 3 million, the figure albeit including those who speak the Spanish-based creole
Chavacano. Complementing government efforts is a notable surge of exposure through the
mainstream media and, more recently,
music-streaming services.
Other Asian
Th
Kodrah Kristangrevitalization initiative in
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bor ...
seeks to revive the critically endangered
Kristang creole.
In Thailand, there exists a
Chong language
Chong (Thai: ภาษาชอง, also spelled ''Chawng, Shong, Xong'') is an endangered language spoken in eastern Thailand and formerly in Cambodia by the Chong. It is a Western Pearic language in the Mon–Khmer language family. Chong ...
revitalization project, headed by Suwilai Premsrirat.
Europe
In
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the use of both local and learned
languages declined as the central governments of the different states imposed their vernacular language as the standard throughout education and official use (this was the case in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
,
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
,
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
and
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
, and to some extent, in
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
and
Austria-Hungary).
In the last few decades, local
nationalism and
human rights movements have made a more
multicultural
The term multiculturalism has a range of meanings within the contexts of sociology, political philosophy, and colloquial use. In sociology and in everyday usage, it is a synonym for " ethnic pluralism", with the two terms often used interchang ...
policy standard in European states; sharp condemnation of the earlier practices of suppressing regional languages was expressed in the use of such terms as "
linguicide".
Irish
One of the best known European attempts at language revitalization concerns the
Irish language. While English is dominant through most of Ireland, Irish, a
Celtic language
The Celtic languages (usually , but sometimes ) are a group of related languages descended from Proto-Celtic. They form a branch of the Indo-European language family. The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by Edward ...
, is still spoken in certain areas called ''
Gaeltachtaí'',
[Carnie, Andrew. "Modern Irish: Modern Irish: A Case Study in Language Revival Failure." (1995).] but there it is in serious decline. The challenges faced by the language over the last few centuries have included exclusion from important domains, social denigration, the death or emigration of many Irish speakers during the
Irish famine of the 1840s, and continued emigration since. Efforts to revitalise Irish were being made, however, from the mid-1800s, and were associated with a desire for Irish political independence.
Contemporary Irish language revitalization has chiefly involved teaching Irish as a compulsory language in mainstream English-speaking schools. But the failure to teach it in an effective and engaging way means (as linguist Andrew Carnie notes) that students do not acquire the fluency needed for the lasting viability of the language, and this leads to boredom and resentment. Carnie also noted a lack of media in Irish (2006),
though this is no longer the case.
The decline of the Gaeltachtaí and the failure of state-directed revitalisation have been countered by an urban revival movement. This is largely based on an independent community-based school system, known generally as
Gaelscoil
A Gaelscoil (; plural: ''Gaelscoileanna'') is an Irish language-medium school in Ireland: the term refers especially to Irish-medium schools outside the Irish-speaking regions or Gaeltacht. Over 50,000 students attend Gaelscoileanna at primary an ...
eanna. These schools teach entirely through Irish and their number is growing, with over thirty such schools in Dublin alone. They are an important element in the creation of a network of urban Irish speakers (known as Gaeilgeoirí), who tend to be young, well-educated and middle-class. It is now likely that this group has acquired critical mass, a fact reflected in the expansion of Irish-language media.
[http://www.gaelport.com/default.aspx?treeid=37&NewsItemID=3726: ‘Schism fears for Gaeilgeoirí,’ Brian Ó Broin, 16 January 2010, ''The Irish Times''.] Irish language television has enjoyed particular success. It has been argued that they tend to be better educated than monolingual English speakers and enjoy higher social status. They represent the transition of Irish to a modern urban world, with an accompanying rise in prestige.
Scottish Gaelic
There are also current attempts to revive the related language of
Scottish Gaelic, which was suppressed following the formation of the United Kingdom, and entered further decline due to the
Highland clearances. Currently, Gaelic is only spoken widely in the
Western Isles
The Outer Hebrides () or Western Isles ( gd, Na h-Eileanan Siar or or ("islands of the strangers"); sco, Waster Isles), sometimes known as the Long Isle/Long Island ( gd, An t-Eilean Fada, links=no), is an island chain off the west coast ...
and some relatively small areas of the
Highlands and Islands. The decline in fluent Gaelic speakers has slowed; however, the population center has shifted to L2 speakers in urban areas, especially Glasgow.
Manx
Another Celtic language,
Manx, lost its last native speaker in 1974 and was declared extinct by
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
in 2009, but never completely fell from use. The language is now taught in primary and secondary schools, including as a teaching medium at the
Bunscoill Ghaelgagh
Bunscoill Ghaelgagh is a government-run Manx-language primary school in St John's, Isle of Man that has enabled 170 children to learn fluent Manx. it is the only school in the world where children are taught their lessons solely in Manx and whic ...
, used in some public events and spoken as a second language by approximately 1800 people. Revitalization efforts include radio shows in Manx Gaelic and social media and online resources. The Manx government has also been involved in the effort by creating organizations such as the Manx Heritage Foundation (
Culture Vannin
Culture Vannin is the trading name for the Manx Heritage Foundation, established in 1982 by the Isle of Man Government to promote Manx culture, heritage and language. It was rebranded in February 2014, having previously been known as the "Manx Her ...
) and the position of Manx Language Officer. The government has released an official Manx Language Strategy for 2017–2021.
Cornish
There have been a number of attempts to revive the
Cornish language, both privately and some under the
Cornish Language Partnership. Some of the activities have included translation of the Christian scriptures, a guild of bards, and the promotion of
Cornish literature in modern Cornish, including novels and poetry.
Caló
The
Romani arriving in the Iberian Peninsula developed an Iberian
Romani dialect.
As time passed, Romani ceased to be a full language and became
Caló, a
cant
Cant, CANT, canting, or canted may refer to:
Language
* Cant (language), a secret language
* Beurla Reagaird, a language of the Scottish Highland Travellers
* Scottish Cant, a language of the Scottish Lowland Travellers
* Shelta or the Cant, a la ...
mixing Iberian Romance grammar and Romani vocabulary.
With sedentarization and obligatory instruction in the official languages, Caló is used less and less.
As Iberian Romani proper is extinct and as Caló is endangered, some people are trying to revitalise the language. The Spanish politician
Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia promotes
Romanò-Kalò, a variant of
International Romani, enriched by Caló words.
[''"Unión Romaní imparte el primer curso de romanò-kalò"''](_blank)
, Union Romani, 29 December 2006 His goal is to reunify the Caló and Romani roots.
Livonian
The Livonian language, a Finnic language, once spoken on about a third of modern-day Latvian territory, died in the 21st century with the death of the last native speaker Grizelda Kristiņa on 2 June 2013. Today there are about 210 people mainly living in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian and speak the language on the A1-A2 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and between 20 and 40 people who speak the language on level B1 and up. Today all speakers learn Livonian as a second language. There are different programs educating Latvians on the cultural and linguistic heritage of Livonians and the fact that most Latvians have common Livonian descent.
Programs worth mentioning include:
* Livones.net with extensive information about language, history and culture
* The Livonian Institute of the University of Latvia doing research on the Livonian language, other Finnic languages in Latvia and providing an extensive Livonian-Latvian-Estonian dictionary with declinations/conjugations
* Virtual Livonia providing information on the Livonian language and especially its grammar
* Mierlinkizt: An annual summer camp for children to teach children about the Livonian language, culture etc.
* Līvõd Īt (Livonian Union)
The Livonian linguistic and cultural heritage is included in the Latvian cultural canon and the protection, revitalization and development of Livonian as an indigenous language is guaranteed by Latvian law
Old Prussian
A few linguists and philologists are involved in
reviving a reconstructed form of the extinct
Old Prussian language
Old Prussian was a Western Baltic language belonging to the Baltic branch of the Indo-European languages, which was once spoken by the Old Prussians, the Baltic peoples of the Prussian region. The language is called Old Prussian to avoid con ...
from Luther's catechisms, the Elbing Vocabulary, place names, and Prussian loanwords in the
Low Prussian dialect
Low Prussian (german: Niederpreußisch), sometimes known simply as Prussian (''Preußisch''), is a moribund dialect of East Low German that developed in East Prussia. Low Prussian was spoken in East and West Prussia and Danzig up to 1945. In Da ...
of German. Several dozen people use the language in
Lithuania,
Kaliningrad, and
Poland, including a few children who are natively bilingual.
The Prusaspirā Society has published their translation of
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's ''
The Little Prince''. The book was translated by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and released in 2015. The other efforts of Baltic Prussian societies include the development of online dictionaries, learning apps and games. There also have been several attempts to produce music with lyrics written in the revived Baltic Prussian language, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by
Romowe Rikoito
Romowe Rikoito is a neofolk band based in Nida, Lithuania. It was formed by Glabbis Niktorius at 1995 and named after ancient Prussian spiritual center Romowe (also known as Rikoyto). The group has published 5 albums – first two albums ''Narciss ...
, Kellan and Āustras Laīwan, but also in Lithuania by
Kūlgrinda in their 2005 album ''Prūsų Giesmės'' (Prussian Hymns), and in
Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988 and
Valdis Muktupāvels in his 2005
oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.
Important in this revival was
Vytautas Mažiulis, who died on 11 April 2009, and his pupil Letas Palmaitis, leader of the experiment and author of the website ''Prussian Reconstructions''. Two late contributors were Prāncis Arellis (
Pranciškus Erelis), Lithuania, and Dailūns Russinis (Dailonis Rusiņš), Latvia. After them, Twankstas Glabbis from
Kaliningrad oblast and Nērtiks Pamedīns from East-Prussia, now Polish
Warmia-Mazuria actively joined.
Yola
The
Yola language
Yola, historically the Forth and Bargy dialect, is a revived Anglic language once spoken widely in the baronies of Forth and Bargy in County Wexford, Ireland. It is thought to have evolved from Middle English, which was brought to Ireland dur ...
revival movement has cultivated in Wexford in recent years, and the “Gabble Ing Yola” resource center for Yola materials claims there are around 140 speakers of the Yola language today.
Oceania
Australia
The European colonization of Australia, and the consequent damage sustained by
Aboriginal communities, had a catastrophic effect on indigenous languages, especially in the southeast and south of the country, leaving some with no living traditional native speakers. A number of Aboriginal communities in
Victoria
Victoria most commonly refers to:
* Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia
* Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada
* Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory
* Victoria, Seychelle ...
and elsewhere are now trying to revive some of
these languages. The work is typically directed by a group of
Aboriginal elder
Australian Aboriginal elders are highly respected people within Australia and their respective Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. An Elder has been defined as "someone who has gained recognition as a custodian of knowledge and l ...
s and other knowledgeable people, with community language workers doing most of the research and teaching. They analyze the data, develop spelling systems and vocabulary and prepare resources. Decisions are made in collaboration. Some communities employ linguists, and there are also linguists who have worked independently, such as
Luise Hercus
Luise Anna Hercus , , (16 January 1926 – 15 April 2018) was a German-born linguist who lived in Australia from 1954. After significant early work on Middle Indo-Aryan dialects (Prakrits) she had specialised in Australian Aboriginal languages si ...
and
Peter K. Austin
Peter Kenneth Austin, often cited as Peter K. Austin, is an Australian linguistics, linguist, widely published in the fields of language documentation, syntax, linguistic typology and in particular, endangered languages and language revitalisati ...
.
* In the state of
Queensland, an effort is being made to teach some Indigenous languages in schools and to develop workshops for adults. More than 150 languages were once spoken within the state, but today fewer than 20 are spoken as a first language, and less than two per cent of schools teach any Indigenous language. The
Gunggari language is one language which is being revived, with only three native speakers left.
* In the
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory shares its borders with Western Aust ...
, the Pertame Project is an example in
Central Australia.
Pertame, from the country south of
Alice Springs, along the
Finke River, is a dialect in the
Arrernte group of languages. With only 20 fluent speakers left by 2018, the Pertame Project is seeking to retain and revive the language, headed by Pertame elder Christobel Swan.
* In the far north of
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
, the
Diyari language has an active programme under way, with materials available for teaching in schools and the wider community.
* The
Victorian Department of Education and Training reported 1,867 student enrollments in 14 schools offering an Aboriginal Languages Program in the state of
Victoria
Victoria most commonly refers to:
* Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia
* Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada
* Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory
* Victoria, Seychelle ...
in 2018.
New Zealand
One of the best cases of relative success in language revitalization is the case of
Māori, also known as . It is the ancestral tongue of the indigenous Māori people of New Zealand and a vehicle for prose narrative, sung poetry, and genealogical recital.
The history of the Māori people is taught in Māori in sacred learning houses through oral transmission. Even after Māori became a written language, the oral tradition was preserved.
Once European colonization began, many laws were enacted in order to promote the use of English over Māori among indigenous people.
The Education Ordinance Act of 1847 mandated school instruction in English and established boarding schools to speed up assimilation of Māori youths into European culture. The Native School Act of 1858 forbade Māori from being spoken in schools.
During the 1970s, a group of young Māori people, the
Ngā Tamatoa, successfully campaigned for Māori to be taught in schools.
Also, Kohanga Reo, Māori language preschools, called language nests, were established. The emphasis was on teaching children the language at a young age, a very effective strategy for language learning. The Māori Language Commission was formed in 1987, leading to a number of national reforms aimed at revitalizing Māori.
They include media programs broadcast in Māori, undergraduate college programs taught in Māori, and an annual Māori language week. Each ''
iwi'', or tribe, created a language planning program catering to its specific circumstances. These efforts have resulted in a steady increase in children being taught in Māori in schools since 1996.
Hawaiian
On six of the seven inhabited islands of
Hawaii, Hawaiian was displaced by English and is no longer used as the daily language of communication. The one exception is
Niʻihau
Niihau ( Hawaiian: ), anglicized as Niihau ( ), is the westernmost main and seventh largest inhabited island in Hawaii. It is southwest of Kauaʻi across the Kaulakahi Channel. Its area is . Several intermittent playa lakes provide wetland h ...
, where
Hawaiian has never been displaced, has never been endangered, and is still used almost exclusively. Efforts to revive the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian
language immersion
Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including math, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction ...
schools are now open to children whose families want to retain (or introduce) Hawaiian language into the next generation. The local
National Public Radio station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day". Additionally, the Sunday editions of the ''
Honolulu Star-Bulletin'' and its successor, the ''
Honolulu Star-Advertiser
The ''Honolulu Star-Advertiser'' is the largest daily newspaper in Hawaii, formed in 2010 with the merger of ''The Honolulu Advertiser'' and the ''Honolulu Star-Bulletin'' after the acquisition of the former by Black Press, which already owned the ...
'', feature a brief article called ''Kauakūkalahale'', written entirely in Hawaiian by a student.
Current revitalization efforts
Language revitalization efforts are ongoing around the world. Revitalization teams are utilizing modern technologies to increase contact with indigenous languages and to record
traditional knowledge.
Mexico
In Mexico, the
Mixtec people's language heavily revolves around the interaction between climate, nature, and what it means for their livelihood.
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
's LINKS (Local and Indigenous Knowledge) program recently underwent a project to create a glossary of Mixtec terms and phrases related to climate. UNESCO believes that the traditional knowledge of the Mixtec people via their deep connection with weather phenomena can provide insight on ways to
address climate change. Their intention in creating the glossary is to "facilitate discussions between experts and the holders of traditional knowledge".
Canada
In Canada, the
Wapikoni Mobile project travels to indigenous communities and provides lessons in film making. Program leaders travel across Canada with mobile audiovisual production units, and aims to provide indigenous youth with a way to connect with their culture through a film topic of their choosing. The Wapikona project submits its films to events around the world as an attempt to spread knowledge of indigenous culture and language.
Chile
Of the youth in Rapa Nui (
Easter Island), ten percent learn their mother language. The rest of the community has adopted Spanish in order to communicate with the outside world and support its tourism industry. Through a collaboration between UNESCO and the Chilean
Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indigena, the Department of Rapa Nui Language and Culture at the Lorenzo Baeza Vega School was created. Since 1990, the department has created primary education texts in the
Rapa Nui language
Rapa Nui or Rapanui (, Rapa Nui: , Spanish: ), also known as Pascuan () or ''Pascuense'', is an Eastern Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family. It is spoken on the island of Rapa Nui, also known as ''Easter Island''.
The isl ...
. In 2017, the Nid Rapa Nui, a
non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from g ...
was also created with the goal of establishing a school that teaches courses entirely in Rapa Nui.
Health benefits of language revitalization
Language revitalisation has been linked to increased health outcomes for Indigenous communities involved in reclaiming traditional language. Benefits range from improved mental health for community members, increasing connectedness to culture, identity, and a sense of wholeness. Indigenous languages are a core element in the formation of identity, providing pathways for cultural expression, agency, spiritual and ancestral connection.
[Sivak, L. et al. (2019) ‘“Language Breathes Life”-Barngarla Community Perspectives on the Wellbeing Impacts of Reclaiming a Dormant Australian Aboriginal Language’, International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(20). doi: 10.3390/ijerph16203918.] Connection to culture is considered to play an important role in childhood development, and is a UN convention right. Much has been written about the connection between identity and culture being inextricably intertwined in Indigenous cultures around the world. As colonisation and subsequent linguicide was carried out through policies such as those that created Australia’s
Stolen Generation have damaged this connection, language revitalization may also play an important role in countering
intergenerational trauma that has been caused.
One study in the
Barngarla
The Barngarla, formerly known as Parnkalla and also known as Pangkala, are an Aboriginal people of the Port Lincoln, Whyalla and Port Augusta areas. The Barngarla are the traditional owners of much of Eyre Peninsula, South Australia.
Languag ...
Community in
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
has been looking holistically at the positive benefits of language reclamation, healing mental and emotional scars, and building connections to community and country that underpin wellness and wholeness. The study identified the Barngarla peoples connection to their
language
Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
is a strong component of developing a strong cultural and personal identity; the people are as connected to language as they are to culture, and culture is key to their identity.
Another study in
New South Wales
)
, nickname =
, image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, es ...
on the
Warlpiri people echoes language as life, that the survival of the language is tied to the survival of the community. Language revival is closely linked to overcoming feelings of shame and fear, which have led to poor health outcomes in the past where speaking traditional language meant the possibility of being removed from family and community. Language reclamation is a form of empowerment and builds strong connections with community and wholeness.
Criticism
John McWhorter
John Hamilton McWhorter V (; born October 6, 1965) is an American linguist with a specialty in creole languages, sociolects, and Black English. He is currently associate professor of linguistics at Columbia University, where he also teaches Amer ...
has argued that programs to revive
indigenous languages will almost never be very effective because of the practical difficulties involved. He also argues that the death of a language does not necessarily mean the death of a culture. Indigenous expression is still possible even when the original language has disappeared, as with Native American groups and as evidenced by the vitality of
black American culture
African-American culture refers to the contributions of African Americans to the culture of the United States, either as part of or distinct from mainstream American culture. The culture is both distinct and enormously influential on Ameri ...
in the United States, among people who speak not
Yoruba but English. He argues that language death is, ironically, a sign of hitherto isolated peoples migrating and sharing space: “To maintain distinct languages across generations happens only amidst unusually tenacious self-isolation—such as that of the
Amish—or brutal segregation”.
Kenan Malik has also argued that it is "irrational" to try to preserve all the world's languages, as language death is natural and in many cases inevitable, even with intervention. He proposes that language death improves communication by ensuring more people speak the same language. This may benefit the economy and reduce conflict.
The protection of
minority languages from extinction is often not a concern for speakers of the dominant language. There is often prejudice and deliberate persecution of minority languages, in order to appropriate the cultural and economic capital of minority groups. At other times governments deem that the cost of revitalization programs and creating linguistically diverse materials is too great to take on.
See also
*
:Language activists
*
Contemporary Latin
Contemporary Latin is the form of the Literary Latin used since the end of the 19th century. Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished, including the use of New Latin words in taxonomy and in science generally, and the fuller ec ...
*
Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation
*
Endangered languages
*
Language documentation
Language documentation (also: documentary linguistics) is a subfield of linguistics which aims to describe the grammar and use of human languages. It aims to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given spee ...
*
Language nest
A language nest is an immersion-based approach to language revitalization in early-childhood education. Language nests originated in New Zealand in the 1980s, as a part of the Māori-language revival in that country. The term "language nest" is ...
*
Language planning
*
Language policy
*
Linguistic purism
*
Minority language
*
Regional language
*
A regional language is a language spoken in a region of a sovereign state, whether it be a small area, a federated state or province or some wider area.
Internationally, for the purposes of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Lan ...
*
Rosetta Project
The Rosetta Project is a global collaboration of language specialists and native speakers working to develop a contemporary version of the historic Rosetta Stone to last from 2000 to 12,000 AD; it is run by the Long Now Foundation. Its goal is ...
*
Sacred language
*
Second-language acquisition
*
Treasure language
*
Languages in censuses
Digital projects and repositories
*
Lingua Libre − a
libre online tool used to record words and phrases of any language (thousands of recordings have already been done in endangered languages like
Atikamekw,
Occitan,
Basque
Basque may refer to:
* Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France
* Basque language, their language
Places
* Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France
* Basque Country (autonomous co ...
,
Catalan, and are all available on
Wikimedia Commons
Wikimedia Commons (or simply Commons) is a media repository of free-to-use images, sounds, videos and other media. It is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation.
Files from Wikimedia Commons can be used across all of the Wikimedia projects in ...
)
*
Tatoeba contains example sentences with translations in dozens of endangered languages, including
Belarusian,
Breton,
Basque
Basque may refer to:
* Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France
* Basque language, their language
Places
* Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France
* Basque Country (autonomous co ...
and
Cornish.
*The
Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages − contains works in endangered languages of the
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory shares its borders with Western Aust ...
, Australia
Organizations
*
Foundation for Endangered Languages
The Foundation for Endangered Languages is a non-profit organization, registered as Charity 1070616 in England and Wales, founded in 1996. Its current chairman is Nicholas Ostler.
It exists to support, enable, and assist the documentation, protec ...
*
The Language Conservancy
The Language Conservancy is a nonprofit organization that with an interest in the Lakota language, Assiniboine language, Crow language and the Hidatsa language.
The Language Conservancy is currently focused largely on indigenous languages in the U ...
*
Pūnana Leo
Pūnana Leo (; often translated as "language nest") are private, non-profit preschools run by families, in which the Hawaiian language is the language of instruction and administration.
Initially opened illegally, the first Pūnana Leo opened i ...
, Hawaiian language schools
*
Resource Network for Linguistic Diversity
*
Culture Vannin
Culture Vannin is the trading name for the Manx Heritage Foundation, established in 1982 by the Isle of Man Government to promote Manx culture, heritage and language. It was rebranded in February 2014, having previously been known as the "Manx Her ...
, Manx Gaelic language organization
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SIL International
Lists
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Lists of endangered languages
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List of endangered languages with mobile apps
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Lists of extinct languages
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List of language regulators
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List of revived languages
A revived language is one that, having experienced near or complete language extinction as either a spoken or written language, has been intentionally revived and has regained some of its former status.
The most frequent reason for extinction i ...
References
Further reading
* Grenoble, L. A. and Whaley, L. J. (1998). ''Endangered Languages: Language Loss and Community Response''. Cambridge University Press. ()
* Nettle, D. and Romaine, S. (2000). ''Vanishing Voices''. Oxford University Press. ()
* Reyhner, J. (ed.) (1999). ''Revitalizing indigenous languages''. Flagstaff, AZ : Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education. ()
*Bastardas-Boada, A. (2019)
''From language shift to language revitalization and sustainability. A complexity approach to linguistic ecology'' Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. ()
External links
Organizations
First Languages AustraliaEnduring Voices Project ''
National Geographic''
Living Tongues Institute for Endangered LanguagesHans Rausing Endangered Languages ProjectGoogle Endangered Languages ProjectFourth International 3L Summer SchoolResource Network for Linguistic DiversityWorld Oral Literature Project, Voices of Vanishing Worlds
Canada
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United States
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Documenting Endangered LanguagesDocumenting Endangered Languages (DEL) (Archived program)''
National Science Foundation''
Society to Advance Indigenous Vernaculars of the United States (Savius.org)
Programs Concerned with Alaska Native Language (ANL) Revitalization*
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California
Advocates for Indigenous California Language SurvivalIndigenous Language InstituteLive Your Language Alliance (LYLA)"It is the desire of the Live Your Language Alliance to hear and speak the traditional languages of the
Tolowa,
Karuk
The Karuk people are an indigenous people of California, and the Karuk Tribe is one of the largest tribes in California. Karuks are also enrolled in two other federally recognized tribes, the Cher-Ae Heights Indian Community of the Trinidad ...
,
Yurok,
Hupa,
Tsnungwe
The Tsnungwe (current Hupa-language orthography, own name: - "Tse:ning-din (Ironside Mountain) People") or ''Tsanunghwa'' are a Native American people indigenous to the modern areas of the lower South Fork Trinity River (), Willow Creek (), ...
,
Wiyot,
Mattole, and
Wailaki."
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Technologies
Recording your elder/Native speaker practical vocal recording tips for non-professionals
Learning indigenous languages on NintendoTexting endangered languagesFirst Nations endangered languages chat applicationsDOBES Documentation of Endangered Languages
Techniques
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Pointers on How to Learn Your Language(scroll to link on page)
Do-it-yourself grammar and reading in your language Breath of Life 2010 presentations
Language HuntersWhere Are Your KeysLost Words - The Documentary covers Dr. Stephen Greymorning's Accelerated Second Language Learning
{{DEFAULTSORT:Language Revitalization
Linguistic purism
Linguistic rights
Endangered languages