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Language policy is an interdisciplinary academic field. Some scholars such as Joshua Fishman and Ofelia García consider it as part of
sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society's effect on language. It can overlap with the sociology of ...
. On the other hand, other scholars such as
Bernard Spolsky Bernard Spolsky (born in New Zealand in 1932; died in Israel August 20, 2022) was a professor emeritus in linguistics at Bar-Ilan University (Israel), specializing in sociolinguistics, educational linguistics, and applied linguistics. Spolsky d ...

Robert B. Kaplan
and Joseph Lo Bianco argue that language policy is a branch of
applied linguistics Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication res ...
. As a field, language policy used to be known as
language planning In sociolinguistics, language planning (also known as language engineering) is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within a speech community.Kaplan B., Robert, and Richa ...
and is related to other fields such as language ideology,
language revitalization Language revitalization, also referred to as language revival or reversing language shift, is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one. Those involved can include linguists, cultural or community groups, o ...
,
language education Language education – the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language – is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field. There are four main learning categories for language educatio ...
, among others.


Definitions

Language policy has been defined in a number of ways. According to Kaplan and Baldauf (1997), "A language policy is a body of ideas, laws, regulations, rules and practices intended to achieve the planned language change in the societies, group or system" (p. xi). Lo Bianco defines the field as “a situated activity, whose specific history and local circumstances influence what is regarded as a language problem, and whose political dynamics determine which language problems are given policy treatment” (p. 152). McCarty (2011) defines language policy as "a complex sociocultural process nd asmodes of human interaction, negotiation, and production mediated by relations of power. The ‘policy’ in these processes resides in their language-regulating power; that is, the ways in which they express normative claims about legitimate and illegitimate language forms and uses, thereby governing language statuses and uses" (p. 8).


Overview

Language policy is broad, but it can be categorized into three components. Spolsky (2004) argues, "A useful first step is to distinguish between the three components of the language policy of a speech community: (1) its language practices – the habitual pattern of selecting among the varieties that make up its linguistic repertoire; (2) its language beliefs or ideology – the beliefs about language and language use; and (3) any specific efforts to modify or influence that practice by any kind of language intervention, planning, or management" (p. 5). The traditional scope of language policy concerns language regulation. This refers to what a government does either officially through
legislation Legislation is the process or result of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to ...
, court decisions or policy to determine how languages are used, cultivate language skills needed to meet national priorities or to establish the rights of individuals or groups to use and maintain languages.


Implementation

The implementation of language policy varies from one State to another. This may be explained by the fact that language policy is often based on contingent historical reasons. Likewise, States also differ as to the degree of explicitness with which they implement a given language policy. The French Toubon law is a good example of explicit language policy. The same may be said for the
Charter of the French Language The ''Charter of the French Language'' (french: link=no, La charte de la langue française), also known in English as Bill 101, Law 101 (''french: link=no, Loi 101''), or Quebec French Preference Law, is a law in the province of Quebec in Canada ...
in
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirte ...
. Scholars such a
Tollefson
argue that language policy can create inequality, "language planning-policy means the institutionalization of language as a basis for distinctions among social groups (classes). That is, language policy is one mechanism for locating language within social structure so that language determines who has access to political power and economic resources. Language policy is one mechanism by which dominant groups establish hegemony in language use" (p. 16). Many countries have a language policy designed to favor or discourage the use of a particular
language Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
or set of languages. Although nations historically have used language policies most often to promote one
official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...
at the expense of others, many countries now have policies designed to protect and promote regional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened. Indeed, whilst the existence of
linguistic minorities A minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a territory. Such people are termed linguistic minorities or language minorities. With a total number of 196 sovereign states recognized internationally (as of 2019) and ...
within their jurisdiction has often been considered to be a potential threat to internal cohesion, States also understand that providing language rights to minorities may be more in their long term interest, as a means of gaining citizens' trust in the central government. The preservation of cultural and
linguistic diversity Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...
in today's world is a major concern to many scientists, artists, writers, politicians, leaders of linguistic communities, and defenders of linguistic human rights. More than half of the 6000 languages currently spoken in the world are estimated to be in danger of disappearing during the 21st century. Many factors affect the existence and usage of any given human language, including the size of the native speaking population, its use in formal communication, and the geographical dispersion and the socio-economic weight of its speakers. National language policies can either mitigate or exacerbate the effects of some of these factors. For example, according to
Ghil'ad Zuckermann Ghil'ad Zuckermann ( he, גלעד צוקרמן, ; ) is an Israeli-born language revivalist and linguist who works in contact linguistics, lexicology and the study of language, culture and identity. Zuckermann is Professor of Linguistics and Ch ...
, "Native tongue title and language rights should be promoted. The government ought to define Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language, music and dance." There are many ways in which language policies can be categorized. It was elaborated by Université Laval
sociolinguist Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society's effect on language. It can overlap with the sociology of l ...
Jacques Leclerc for the French-language Web site ''L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde'' put on line by the CIRAL in 1999. The collecting, translating and classifying of language policies started in 1988 and culminated in the publishing of ''Recueil des législations linguistiques dans le monde'' (vol. I to VI) at Presses de l'Université Laval in 1994. The work, containing some 470 language laws, and the research leading to publication, were subsidised by the
Office québécois de la langue française The (, OQLF; en, Quebec Board of the French Language) is a public organization established on 24 March 1961, by the Liberal government of Jean Lesage. Attached to the , its initial mission, defined in its report of 1 April 1964, was "to align ...
. In April 2008, the Web site presented the linguistic portrait and language policies in 354 States or autonomous territories in 194 recognised countries.Leclerc, Jacques
"Page d'accueil"
in ''L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde'', Québec, TLFQ, Université Laval, 2007 (in French).


Language regulators

*
List of language regulators This is a list of bodies that consider themselves to be authorities on standard languages, often called language academies. Language academies are motivated by, or closely associated with, linguistic purism and prestige, and typically publish ...
*
Académie française An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato's school of philosop ...
* The Academy of the Hebrew Language *
Accademia della Crusca The Accademia della Crusca (; "Academy of the Bran"), generally abbreviated as La Crusca, is a Florence-based society of scholars of Italian linguistics and philology. It is one of the most important research institutions of the Italian langu ...
*
Akademio de Esperanto The Akademio de Esperanto (AdE; en, Academy of Esperanto, link=yes) is an independent body of Esperanto speakers who steward the evolution of said language by keeping it consistent with the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' in accordance with the Decla ...
* Association of Spanish Language Academies *
Board for Standardization of the Serbian Language The Board for Standardization of the Serbian Language ( sr, Одбор за стандардизацију српског језика , translit=Odbor za standardizaciju srpskog jezika) is a linguistic institute in Serbia, Montenegro and Republik ...
(Serbia, Montenegro, Republika Srpska) * Bòrd na Gàidhlig (
Gaelic Gaelic is an adjective that means "pertaining to the Gaels". As a noun it refers to the group of languages spoken by the Gaels, or to any one of the languages individually. Gaelic languages are spoken in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, an ...
in Scotland) * Commission on the Filipino Language (Philippines) * Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Malaysia) * Dutch Language Union * Foras na Gaeilge (Irish) *
Institut d'Estudis Catalans The Institute for Catalan Studies ( ca, Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ), also known by the acronym IEC, is an academic institution which seeks to undertake research and study into "all elements of Catalan culture". It is based in Barcelona, Catal ...
* Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan (Indonesia) * Norwegian Language Council *
Office québécois de la langue française The (, OQLF; en, Quebec Board of the French Language) is a public organization established on 24 March 1961, by the Liberal government of Jean Lesage. Attached to the , its initial mission, defined in its report of 1 April 1964, was "to align ...
* Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg ( Breton in
Brittany Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica during the period ...
) * Pan South African Language Board * Real Academia Española *
Swedish Language Council The Language Council of Sweden ( sv, Språkrådet) is the primary regulatory body for the advancement and cultivation of the Swedish language. The council is a department of the Swedish government's Institute for Language and Folklore ( sv, Inst ...
* Welsh Language Commissioner


See also

*
Linguistic diversity Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...
* Linguistic rights * Cultural hegemony *
Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation (DLPI) is a directorate of the Government of Manipur in charge of the language planning and the implementation of policies of Meitei language (officially known as Manipuri language) as well ...
*
Economics of language The economics of language is an emerging field of study concerning a range of topics such as the effect of language skills on income and trade, and the costs and benefits of language planning options, preservation of minority languages, etc. It is ...
* Grimm's law * Language change * Language movement *
Language planning In sociolinguistics, language planning (also known as language engineering) is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within a speech community.Kaplan B., Robert, and Richa ...
* Language politics * Language reform *
Language revitalization Language revitalization, also referred to as language revival or reversing language shift, is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one. Those involved can include linguists, cultural or community groups, o ...
*
Language tax The language tax is an economic concept proposed by the Belgian economist Philippe Van Parijs. It is intended to compensate countries with a less widespread language for their expenses for teaching and translation. Van Parijs points out that Jona ...
*
Language death In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. By extension, language extinction is when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers. Other similar terms include linguicide, the de ...
* Cross-border language *
National language A national language is a language (or language variant, e.g. dialect) that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with a nation. There is little consistency in the use of this term. One or more languages spoken as first languages in the te ...
* Native Tongue Title *
Official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...
*
Official script An official script is a writing system that is specifically designated to be official in the constitutions or other applicable laws of countries, states, and other jurisdictions. Akin to an official language, an official script is much rarer. I ...
* Regional language *
Street name controversy A street name controversy is a conflict over a public street or road name, also including alleys, squares, parks, quays and motorways. Theory Causes There are several different causes that can make a street name controversial: * A person, ...
* International Mother Language Day * International Year of Languages (2008) * Languages in censuses Directions of language policies: * Linguistic imperialism * Linguistic purism *
Language secessionism Language secessionism (also known as linguistic secessionism or linguistic separatism) is an attitude supporting the separation of a language variety from the language to which it has hitherto been considered to belong, in order to make this v ...
Some case studies: * Europe:
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) is a European treaty (CETS 148) adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. However, th ...
* Belgium:
Language legislation in Belgium This article outlines the legislative chronology concerning the use of official languages in Belgium. 1830: Freedom of languages and linguistic correction A factor in the Belgian Revolution of the 1830s was the rising dominance of the Dutch lan ...
* Croatia: Croatian linguistic purism * Finland: Finland's language strife * France: Language policy in France * Germany: Germanization * Hungary: Magyarization *Italy: Italianization * Latvia:
Language policy in Latvia Articles 4 and 114 of the Constitution of Latvia form the foundation for language policy in Latvia, declaring Latvian to be the official state language and affirming the rights of ethnic minorities to preserve and develop their languages. Livoni ...
* Poland: Polonization * Russia and Soviet Union:
Russification Russification (russian: русификация, rusifikatsiya), or Russianization, is a form of cultural assimilation in which non-Russians, whether involuntarily or voluntarily, give up their culture and language in favor of the Russian cult ...
, Education in the Soviet Union * Slovakia:
Language law of Slovakia Language law of Slovakia is primarily governed by two acts: * The Act on the State Language of the Slovak Republic (Act No. 270/1995), also known as the "State Language Act". It fixes the status and regulates the use of the Slovak language. It took ...
, Slovakization * Spain:
Language policies of Francoist Spain During the dictatorship of Francisco Franco from 1939 to 1975, policies were implemented in an attempt to increase the dominance of the Spanish language, also known as Castilian, over the other languages of Spain. Franco's regime had Spanish na ...
* Ukraine: Ukrainization * Wales:
Welsh Not The Welsh Not was a token used by teachers at some schools in Wales in the 19th century to discourage children from speaking Welsh at school, by marking out those who were heard speaking the language. Accounts suggest that its form and the natu ...
* Arab world: Arabization * Bangladesh: Bengali language movement * Canada: Official bilingualism in Canada, Official Languages Act (Canada) * India:
Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu The anti-Hindi-imposition agitations in Tamil Nadu were a series of agitations that happened in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (formerly Madras State and part of Madras Presidency) during both pre- and post-independence periods. The agitatio ...
* Pakistan:
Urdu movement The Urdu movement was a socio-political movement aimed at making Urdu the universal language and symbol of the cultural and political identity of the Muslim communities of the Indian subcontinent during the British Raj. The movement began with t ...
* United States: English-only movement


References


Bibliography

* Tollefson, J. W. (1991)
Planning language, planning inequality: Language policy in the community
London: Longman. * Spolsky, B. (2004)
Language policy
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Spolsky, B. (2009)
Language management
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Johnson, D. C. (2013)
Language policy
London: Palgrave MacMillan. * Cooper, R. L. (1989)
Language planning and social change
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Zein, S. (2020)
Language policy in superdiverse Indonesia
New York and London: Routledge. * Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.). (2016)
The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language
London: Palgrave Macmillan. *Michele Gazzola,Torsten Templin, Bengt-Arne Wickström, (2018)
''Language Policy and Linguistic Justice''
Springer. *Shohamy, Elana (2006). ''Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches.'' London: Routledge. * Hult, F.M., & Johnson, D.C. (Eds.) (2015). ''Research Methods in Language Policy and Planning: A Practical Guide.'' Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell . * Crawford, James (2000)
''Language Policy Website.''
* Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2012).
Language and identity policies in the 'glocal' age
'. Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Autonòmics. * Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2013). Language policy and planning as an interdisciplinary field: Towards a complexity approach,
''Current Issues in Language Planning''
Volume 14, 2013 - Issue 3-04. *Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2019)
''From language shift to language revitalization and sustainability. A complexity approach to linguistic ecology''
Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. . *Kadochnikov, D. (2016). Languages, Regional Conflicts and Economic Development: Russia. In: Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.)
The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language
London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2016. pp. 538–580. * Spolsky, Bernard (2012).
The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy
'.
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
. *Silva, Diego B. (2019)
Language policy in Oceania
''Alfa, Rev. Linguíst.'' 63 (2). * Zuckermann, Ghil'ad and Walsh, Michael 201
'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures'
''Australian Journal of Linguistics'' 31.


External links


Language Policy Division
of the
Council of Europe The Council of Europe (CoE; french: Conseil de l'Europe, ) is an international organisation founded in the wake of World War II to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. Founded in 1949, it has 46 member states, with a p ...

Infographic: World's Weirdest Language Laws
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