HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

A laboratory (; ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratory services are provided in a variety of settings: physicians' offices, clinics, hospitals, and regional and national referral centers.


Overview

The organisation and contents of laboratories are determined by the differing requirements of the specialists working within. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for
casting Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a ''casting'', which is ejecte ...
or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologist's laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those commonly used by computer scientists,
computer A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations ( computation) automatically. Modern digital electronic computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These prog ...
s (sometimes supercomputers) are used for either simulations or the analysis of data. Scientists in other fields will still use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices. Scientific laboratories can be found as research room and learning spaces in
school A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes co ...
s and universities, industry,
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government i ...
, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts, the term "laboratory" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or
Hackerspace A hackerspace (also referred to as a hacklab, hackspace, or makerspace) is a community-operated, often "not for profit" (501(c)(3) in the United States), workspace where people with common interests, such as computers, machining, technology, ...
s, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources. This development is inspired by new, participatory approaches to science and innovation and relies on user-centred design methods and concepts like Open innovation or User innovation,. One distinctive feature of work in Open Labs is the phenomenon of translation, driven by the different backgrounds and levels of expertise of the people involved.


History

Early instances of "laboratories" recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines. The emergence of Big Science during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
increased the size of laboratories and scientific equipment, introducing particle accelerators and similar devices.


The early laboratories

The earliest laboratory according to the present evidence is a home laboratory of Pythagoras of Samos, the well-known Greek philosopher and scientist. This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string. In the painting of Louis Pasteur by
Albert Edelfelt Albert Gustaf Aristides Edelfelt (21 July 1854 – 18 August 1905) was a Finnish-Swedish painter noted for his naturalistic style and Realist approach to art. He lived in the Grand Duchy of Finland and made Finnish culture visible abroad, before ...
in 1885, Louis Pasteur is shown comparing a note in his left hand with a bottle filled with a solid in his right hand, and not wearing any personal protective equipment. Researching in teams started in the 19th century, and many new kinds of equipment were developed in the 20th century. A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor was believed to be the owner. The laboratory is called Speculum Alchemiae and is preserved as a museum in Prague. File:Chemielabor des 18. Jahrhunderts, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien.jpg,
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the elements that make up matter to the compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, proper ...
laboratory of the 18th century, of the sort used by Antoine Lavoisier and his contemporaries File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg, Thomas Edison in his laboratory, 1901 File:Kulutusosuuskuntien Keskusliiton kokoelma D1974 11365A (30257239153).jpg, A laboratory of the Chemistry Department of the
University of Helsinki The University of Helsinki ( fi, Helsingin yliopisto, sv, Helsingfors universitet, abbreviated UH) is a public research university located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829, but founded in the city of Turku (in Swedish ''Åbo'') in 1640 as the R ...
on September 23, 1960 File:Fotothek df n-09 0000024.jpg, A laboratory in the 1970s File:MUIC chem lab.jpg, Chemical laboratory in
Mahidol University International College Mahidol University International College (MUIC; th, วิทยาลัยนานาชาติ มหาวิทยาลัยมหิดล) is Thailand's first public international college. It is part of Mahidol University and is loc ...
since 2009 File:Muic counter in lab chem.jpg, Early 2000s style of counter in Chemical Laboratory,
Mahidol University International College Mahidol University International College (MUIC; th, วิทยาลัยนานาชาติ มหาวิทยาลัยมหิดล) is Thailand's first public international college. It is part of Mahidol University and is loc ...
, Thailand File:Chemisches Labor.jpg, Laboratory for organic Chemistry at the University of Applied Science Aachen, Campus Jülich,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...


Techniques

Laboratory techniques are the set of procedures used on natural sciences such as
chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the elements that make up matter to the compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, proper ...
, biology, physics to conduct an experiment, all of them follow the scientific method; while some of them involve the use of complex laboratory equipment from laboratory glassware to electrical devices, and others require more specific or expensive supplies.


Equipment and supplies

Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in a laboratory: The classical equipment includes tools such as Bunsen burners and microscopes as well as specialty equipment such as
operant conditioning chamber An operant conditioning chamber (also known as a Skinner box) is a laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior. The operant conditioning chamber was created by B. F. Skinner while he was a graduate student at Harvard University. The c ...
s, spectrophotometers and calorimeters. ;Chemical laboratories * laboratory glassware such as the beaker or reagent bottle * Analytical devices as HPLC or
spectrophotometers Spectrophotometry is a branch of electromagnetic spectroscopy concerned with the quantitative measurement of the reflection or transmission properties of a material as a function of wavelength. Spectrophotometry uses photometers, known as sp ...
;Molecular biology laboratories + Life science laboratories * Autoclave * Microscope * Centrifuges * Shakers & mixers * Pipette * Thermal cyclers ( PCR) * Photometer * Refrigerators and Freezers *
Universal testing machine A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. An earlier name for a tensile testing machine i ...
* ULT Freezers * Incubators *
Bioreactor A bioreactor refers to any manufactured device or system that supports a biologically active environment. In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves organisms or biochemically active substance ...
* Biological safety cabinets * Sequencing instruments * Fume hoods *
Environmental chamber An environmental chamber, also called a climatic chamber or climate chamber, is an enclosure used to test the effects of specified environmental conditions on biological items, industrial products, materials, and electronic devices and components ...
* Humidifier * Weighing scale * Reagents (supply) * Pipettes tips (supply) * Polymer (supply) consumables for small volumes (µL and mL scale), mainly sterile Laboratory equipment is generally used to either perform an experiment or to take measurements and gather data. Larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument.


Specialized types

The title of ''laboratory'' is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. These notably include: * Film laboratory or Darkroom * Clandestine lab for the production of illegal drugs * Computer lab * Crime lab used to process crime scene evidence * Language laboratory * Medical laboratory (involves handling of chemical compounds) * Public health laboratory * Industrial laboratory * Cleanroom


Safety

In many laboratories, hazards are present. Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage. Therefore, safety precautions are vitally important. Rules exist to minimize the individual's risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab users from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories. This standard is often referred to as the "Laboratory Standard". Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan (CHP) which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, and its approach to them. In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards. The CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer (CHO) to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective "outside view" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit. Inspections and audits like also be conducted on a regular basis to assess hazards due to chemical handling and storage, electrical equipment,
biohazards A biological hazard, or biohazard, is a biological substance that poses a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily humans. This could include a sample of a microorganism, virus or toxin that can adversely affect human health. A bioh ...
,
hazardous waste management Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. Hazardous waste is a type of dangerous goods. They usually have one or more of the following hazardous traits: ignitability, reactivity, c ...
,
chemical waste Chemical waste is any excess, unusable, or unwanted chemical, especially those that cause damage to human health or the environment. Chemical waste may be classified as hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste, universal waste, and household ha ...
, housekeeping and emergency preparedness, radiation safety, ventilation as well as respiratory testing and indoor air quality. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance and the training of individuals who have access to or work in the laboratory. Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries and potential litigation. Efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging.


Sustainability

The effects of climate change are becoming more dire and mitigation strategies are needed even for the research community. While many laboratories are used to perform research to find innovative solutions to this global challenge, sustainable working practices in the labs are also contributing factors towards a greener environment. Many labs are already trying to minimize their environmental impact by reducing energy consumption, recycling, and implementing waste sorting processes to ensure correct disposal.


Best practice

Research labs featuring energy-intensive equipment, use up to three to five times more energy per square meter than office areas.


Fume hoods

Presumably the major contributor to this high energy consumption are fume hoods. Significant impact can be achieved by keeping the opening height as low as possible when working and keeping them closed when not in use. One possibility to help with this, could be to install automatic systems, which close the hoods after an inactivity period of a certain length and turn off the lights as well. So the flow can be regulated better and is not unnecessarily kept at a very high level.


Freezers

Normally, ULT freezers are kept at −80 °C. One such device can consume up to the same amount of energy as a single-family household (25 kWh/day). Increasing the temperature to −70 °C makes it possible to use 40% less energy and still keep most of your samples safely stored.


Air condensers

Minimizing the consumption of water can be achieved by changing from water-cooled condensers ( ''Dimroth'' condenser) to air-cooled condensers ( ''Vigreux'' column), which take advantage of the large surface area to cool.


Laboratory electronics

The use of ovens is very helpful to dry glassware, but those installations can consume a lot of energy. Employing timers to regulate their use during nights and weekends, can reduce their impact on energy consumption enormously.


Waste sorting and disposal

The disposal of chemically/biologically contaminated waste requires a lot of energy. Regular waste however requires much less energy or can even be recycled to some degree. Not every object in a lab is contaminated, but often ends up in the contaminated waste, driving up energy costs for waste disposal. A good sorting and recycling system for non contaminated lab waste will allow lab users to act sustainably and correctly dispose of waste.


Networks

As of 2021, there are numerous laboratories currently dedicating time and resources to move towards more sustainable lab practices at their facilities, e.g.  MIT and the university of Edingburgh. Furthermore, several networks have emerged such a
Green Your LabTowards greener research
th
UK-based network LEAN
th
Max-Planck-Sustainability network
and national platforms such a
green labs austria
an
green labs NL
More university independent efforts and resources include th
Laboratory Efficiency Assessment Framework
the think-tan
labos1point5
and th
non-profit organisation my green lab


Organization

Organization of laboratories is an area of focus in sociology. Scientists consider how their work should be organized, which could be based on themes, teams, projects or fields of expertise. Work is divided, not only between different jobs of the laboratory such as the researchers, engineers and technicians, but also in terms of autonomy (should the work be individual or in groups). For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project. Finance management is yet another organizational issue. The laboratory itself is a historically dated organizational model. It came about due to the observation that the quality of work of researchers who collaborate is overall greater than a researcher working in isolation. From the 1950s, the laboratory has evolved from being an educational tool used by teachers to attract the top students into research, into an organizational model allowing a high level of scientific productivity. Some forms of organization in laboratories include: *Their size: Varies from a handful of researches to several hundred. *The division of labor: "Occurs between designers and operatives; researchers, engineers, and technicians; theoreticians and experimenters; senior researchers, junior researchers and students; those who publish, those who sign the publications and the others; and between specialities." The sociology of scientific work p98 *The coordination mechanisms: Which includes the formalization of objectives and tasks; the standardization of procedures (protocols, project management, quality management, knowledge management), the validation of publications and cross-cutting activities (number and type of seminars). There are three main factors that contribute to the organizational form of a laboratory : * The educational background of the researchers and their socialization process. * The intellectual process involved in their work, including the type of investigation and equipment they use. * The laboratory's history. Other forms of organization include social organization.


Social organization

A study by Richard H.R. Harper, involving two laboratories, will help elucidate the concept of social organization in laboratories. The main subject of the study revolved around the relationship between the staff of a laboratory (researchers, administrators, receptionists, technicians, etc.) and their Locator. A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member. The study describes social relationships among different classes of jobs, such as the relationship between researchers and the Locator. It does not describe the social relationship between employees within a class, such as the relationship between researchers. Through ethnographic studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory. Entitlement can be both formal or informal (meaning it's not enforced), but each class is aware and conforms to its existence. The degree of entitlement, which is also referred to as a staff's rights, affects social interaction between staff. By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization. As an example, administrators, in one lab of the study, do not have the right to ask the Locator where the researchers currently are, as they are not entitled to such information. On the other hand, researchers do have access to this type of information. So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights. The Locator does not want to disclose information that could jeopardize his relationship with the members of staff. The Locator adheres to the rights of each class. Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies. This was inferred based on the attitude of various jobs towards their lab badge. Their attitude depended on how that job viewed their badge from a standpoint of utility, (how is the badge useful for my job) morality (what are my morals on privacy, as it relates to being tracked by this badge) and relations (how will I be seen by others if I refuse to wear this badge). For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day. Illustrating relations, researchers would also wear their badge due to informal pressures, such as not wanting to look like a spoil-sport, or not wanting to draw attention to themselves. Another finding is the resistance to change in a social organization. Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more. In summary, differences in attitude among members of the laboratory are explained by social organization: A person's attitudes are intimately related to the role they have in an organization. This hierarchy helps understand information distribution, control, and attitudes towards technologies in the laboratory.


See also

* Cargo cult science * Chemical accident * Contamination control * Controlled lab reactor * Environmental health * Fume hood * Hackspace * ISO/IEC 17025 * Lab website * Laboratory automation *
Laboratory safety Many laboratories contain significant risks, and the prevention of laboratory accidents requires great care and constant vigilance. Examples of risk factors include high voltages, high and low pressures and temperatures, corrosive and toxic chemic ...
*
Science tourism Science tourism is a travel topic grouping scientific attractions. It covers interests in visiting and exploring scientific landmarks, including museums, laboratories, observatories and universities. It also includes visits to see events of ...
* Standard conditions for temperature and pressure *
Workshop Beginning with the Industrial Revolution era, a workshop may be a room, rooms or building which provides both the area and tools (or machinery) that may be required for the manufacture or repair of manufactured goods. Workshops were the ...


References


External links

* *
Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories

QA Explore
{{Authority control Experiments