The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa ( si, පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය, Polonnaruwa Rājādhaniya) was the
Sinhalese kingdom
The Sinhala Kingdom or Sinhalese Kingdom refers to the successive Sinhalese kingdoms that existed in what is today Sri Lanka. The Sinhalese kingdoms are kingdoms known by the city at which its administrative centre was located. These are in chron ...
that expanded across the island of
Sri Lanka and several overseas territories, from 1070 until 1232. The kingdom started expanding its
overseas authority during the reign of
Parakramabahu the Great
Parākramabāhu I ( Sinhala: මහා පරාක්රමබාහු, 1123–1186), or Parakramabahu the Great, was the king of Polonnaruwa from 1153 to 1186. He oversaw the expansion and beautification of his capital, constructed extensiv ...
.
It had a stronghold in
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...
since its involvement in a
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
in the Pandya country. During this war,
Pandya Nadu
Pandya Nadu or Pandi Nadu is a geographical region comprising the southern part of the present day state of Tamil Nadu. The region is bounded on its West by the Venad/ Ay Nadu, Northeast by the Chola Nadu and Northwest by the Kongu Nadu. It comp ...
was seized as a province administered by the military of Polonnaruwa. The tributaries of the
Chola empire
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BC ...
, Tondi and Pasi, also came under its military rule. Rameshwaram was under Sinhalese rule until 1182. Its currency ''Kahapana'' was struck in these provinces. During the occupation of South India, construction works were undertaken.
Despite being a kingdom, it had been under the control of its royal military, which captured power twice and remained dominant in politics. Other militaries also had captured power in the kingdom. The kings of Polonnaruwa also had to crush rebellions from several parts of the country, including the
Kingdom of Ruhuna
The Principality of Ruhuna, also referred to as the Kingdom of Ruhuna, is a region of present-day Southern and Eastern Sri Lanka. It was the center of a flourishing civilisation and the cultural and economic centres of ancient Sri Lanka. Magama, T ...
under
Sugala
Queen Sugala of Ruhuna also referred to as Sugala Devi (12th century A.D), was the last monarch of the Kingdom of Ruhuna, a state which was located in the Southern and Eastern regions of Sri Lanka.
Life
The Kingdom of Ruhuna was a Sub kingdom lo ...
.
Following the capture of the kingdom's capital Polonnaruwa by Hindu invader
Kalinga Magha
Kalinga Magha or Gangaraja Kalinga Vijayabahu ( ta, கலிங்க மாகன் / கலிங்க மாகோன் / கங்கராஜ காலிங்க விஜயவாகு மகன் , si, කාලිංග මාඝ, ...
, who established himself in there, a new
Buddhist kingdom was established in Dambadeniya, while the city of Polonnaruwa was recaptured in an invasion, it was not reestablished as the capital.
History
After ruling the country for over 1,400 years, the
Kingdom of Anuradhapura
The Anuradhapura Kingdom ( Sinhala: , translit: Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya, Tamil: ), named for its capital city, was the first established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka related to the Sinhalese people. Founded by King Pandukabhaya in 437 ...
fell in 1017 to the
Chola King Rajaraja and his son Rajendra, who took King Mahinda V as a
prisoner of war
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
Belligerents hold prisoners of w ...
to Tamil Nadu; he died there in 1029. The Cholas shifted the capital from
Anuradhapura
Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
to
Polonnaruwa
Poḷonnaruwa, ( si, පොළොන්නරුව, translit=Poḷonnaruva; ta, பொலன்னறுவை, translit=Polaṉṉaṟuvai) also referred as Pulathisipura and Vijayarajapura in ancient times, is the main town of Polonnaruwa Dis ...
and ruled for nearly 53 years. Polonnaruwa was named Jananathapuram by the Cholas. King
Vijayabahu I
Vijayabahu I (born ''Prince Keerthi'') (ruled 1055–1110), also known as Vijayabahu the Great, was a medieval king of Sri Lanka. Born to a royal bloodline, Vijayabahu grew up under Chola occupation. He assumed rulership of the Ruhuna principalit ...
(or Kitti) eventually defeated the Cholas and re-established the Sinhalese monarchy. Polonnaruwa had always been considered an important settlement in the island, as it commanded the crossings of the
Mahaveli River towards Anuradhapura.
3 years after restoring Anuradhapura, Vijayabahu prepared to fight a possible invasion. He moved the capital out of Anuradhapura to a more defensive position, Polonnaruwa. After the victory at Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu had to face more rebellions. This caused him to delay his coronation, which took place in 1072 or 1073, eighteen years after being crowned as Vijayabahu in Ruhuna, and after a military campaign that lasted seventeen years. Polonnaruwa was renamed Vijayarajapura and chosen as the capital. The coronation ceremony was held in a palace built for this purpose in Anuradhapura, the former capital of the country. Vijayabahu married Lilavati, the daughter of
Jagatipala of Kanauj, as his queen. He later married Tilokasundari, a princess from
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
, with the view of strengthening ties with the Kalingas.
Succession war
Vijayabahu's death left a disputed throne; the absolute successor
Parakramabahu I
Parākramabāhu I ( Sinhala: මහා පරාක්රමබාහු, 1123–1186), or Parakramabahu the Great, was the king of Polonnaruwa from 1153 to 1186. He oversaw the expansion and beautification of his capital, constructed extensiv ...
was only selected after a war between the claimants to the throne.
Firstly, he entered secret negotiations with
Gajabahu's military chief, but these attempts to capture power failed. He then sent the army of Dakkhinadesa to capture Rajarata, but he was introduced to Manabaraha, who allied with Gajabahu. Despite the setback, he captured Rajarata. Gajabahu, his army weakened, found himself in a battle against Manabharana as well. He later declared that he had passed over Rajarata to Parakramabahu of Dakkhinadesa. Manabharana was also defeated.
Parakramabahu
Following the end of the Kalinga-Arya conflict,
Parakramabahu I
Parākramabāhu I ( Sinhala: මහා පරාක්රමබාහු, 1123–1186), or Parakramabahu the Great, was the king of Polonnaruwa from 1153 to 1186. He oversaw the expansion and beautification of his capital, constructed extensiv ...
, unified the three principalities:
Rohana,
Malaya, and
Rajarata
Rajarata ā dja ra tə(Meaning: King's country) ( Sinhala: රජරට) (Tamil: ரஜரட) was one of three historical regions of the island of Sri Lanka for about 1,700 years from the 6th century BCE to the early 13th century CE. Several anc ...
; declaring the islandwide
Dakkhinadesa, he formed the Polonnaruwa kingdom in the latter. His reign saw the expansion of the kingdom, leading raids and large-scale invasions against his opponents. He launched an invasion against the kings of Ramanna (currently lower Burma) due to their acts of hostility, such as the kidnapping of a princess by
Narathu's son Narapatisithu. In this invasion, he captured the Burmese city
Bassein.
After Parakramabahu
Following the death of Parakramabahu,
Vijayabahu II ascended the throne. He called Nissanka Malla to visit the country and take the throne. Vijayabahu II was, however, killed by the invader
Mahinda VI.
Nissanka Malla assassinated Mahinda VI and justified his killing by claiming he was the rightful ancestor of
Vijaya Singha.
Kingdom
Agriculture
Starting from the era of Parakramabahu I, there was great interest in irrigation. He ordered:
Mass tanks were built for this purpose. Some of his notable works are the
Parakrama Samudra
Parakrama Samudra (or King Parakrama's sea or the Sea of King Parakrama) is a shallow reservoir (wewa), consisting of five separate wewa (reservoirs) (thopa, dumbutulu, erabadu, bhu, kalahagala tanks) connected by narrow channels in Polonnaruwa, S ...
and the
Giritale tank. These works surpassed what existed during the
Anuradhapura period
The Anuradhapura period was a period in the history of Sri Lanka of the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 377 BCE to 1017 CE. The period begins when Pandukabhaya, King of Upatissa Nuwara moved the administration to Anuradhapura, becoming the kingdom's ...
. Previously built dams were largely renovated during this period.
Demographics
The
Sinhalese accounted for the majority, and the
Sinhalese language was the common language. Settlements from Cambodia are recorded, the
Khmer settled in an area called ''Kambojavâsaĺa''. The Khmer script was used to write Pali texts such as the
Khmer script version of the ''Mahavamsa''.
Trade
Most trade was carried out through the main seaports of the principality, Kalpitiya, Halaavatha (Chilaw) and Colombo.
Coinage
The coins, which were mostly made of copper, were modelled after their ruler. While gold coins also existed within the kingdom and were used, they largely disappeared in the very last days of Parakramabahu I. This may have been due to an economic crisis caused by the burden. It is to be noted that the coinage of Polonnaruwa shows a great resemblance to that of RajaRaja I of the Chola kingdom. The Setu coins found in South India are also likely from the kingdom of Polonnaruwa, as the Chola or Pandya kingdoms had no reason to use these.
Trade with the Chinese dynasties was extensively high at the period, and coins belonging to the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
have been found throughout Polonnaruwa.
Meanwhile, in its colonial territories in South India, the Kahapana currency was used.
Technology and structures
The ancient Sinhalese civilization was technologically advanced. The irrigation technology of Polonnaruwa was much similar to the Anuradhapura period ones but was even more advanced.
James Emerson Tennent
Sir James Emerson Tennent, 1st Baronet, FRS (born James Emerson; 7 April 1804 – 6 March 1869) was a British politician and traveller born in Ireland. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 5 June 1862.
Life
The third son of William ...
writes:
Divine architecture ranging from larger dams to artificial seas, such as the Parakrama Samudra, always required advanced technology and were built in unique ways.
Vatedage
The Vatadages were built since the Anuradhapura period, however, the peak was reached during the Polonnaruwa period. The
Polonnaruwa Vatadage is considered the "ultimate creation" out of all Vatadages. A Vatedage is built for the protection of a small stupa. The structure has two stone platforms decorated with elaborate stone carvings. The lower platform is entered through a single entrance facing the north, while the second platform can be accessed through four doorways facing the four cardinal points. The upper platform, surrounded by a brick wall, contains the stupa. Four Buddha statues are seated around it, each facing one of the entrances. Three concentric rows of stone columns had also been positioned here, presumably to support a wooden roof. The entire structure is decorated with stone carvings. Some of the carvings at the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, such as its sandakada pahanas, are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features. Although some archaeologists have suggested that it also had a wooden roof, this theory is disputed by others.
Nissanka Malla reign
The Hatedage and Nissanka Latha Mandapaya were built by Nissanka Malla (1187-1197) to store the relics. Several relics including relics of the Tooth of Buddha and Rice Bowls used by the Buddha are said to have been held in the Hatadage. Several historical sources including the ''
Rajaveliya
Rajavaliya (line of kings) is an ancient chronicle of Sri Lanka. It contains the history of King Vijaya to King Vimaladharmasuriya ΙΙ. It is the only chronicle which contains continuous history of Sri Lanka written in Sinhalese language.
Altho ...
'', ''Poojavaliya'' and the Galpotha inscription itself mention that it was built in sixty hours. Since the
Sinhalese word ''Hata'' means sixty and ''Dage'' means relic shrine, it is possible that the structure was named Hatadage to commemorate this feat. Another theory is that it is so named because it held sixty relics.
Despite having built many structures, Nissanka Malla's major intention was to outdo the works of Parakramabahu I. He also built a statue of himself.
Military (1153–1186)
Parakramabahu organized the military of the kingdom. There were auxiliary forces made up mostly of other Buddhist ethnicities.
Ground forces
There were several branches of the ground forces of Polonnaruwa of Parakramabahu. The Culawamsa suggests that the strength may have been as many as 100,000 during the 1140s prior to the first battle of Rajarata. Its strength during the Pandyan war is not said, however, it may have been numerous as well. The ground forces could be divided between the main armies led by
Lankapura Dandanatha and the auxiliary forces made up mostly of minorities.
Army
The armies of Parakramabahu in the early days were led by Rakkha. There were other important generals who Parakramabahu dispatched in order to reinforce Rakkha fighting the forces of Ruhunan separatists.
Auxiliaries
The auxiliary units were used to reinforce the Sinhalese army on multiple occasions. These units were largely made up of Buddhist minorities, and tribals.
Naval forces
The first navy was organized in 1165. This was used for the invasion of Burma.
[The Maritime Frontier of Burma: Exploring Political, Cultural and Commercial Interaction in the Indian Ocean World, 1200-1800. p. 43]
Fall
Following the death of Kalinga Lokeshvara, his son
Vira Bahu I took up power. However, he was killed by the military commander Tavuru Senavirat. A period of
military rule was followed by the ascension of
Vikramabahu I; who was assassinated by a nephew of Kalinga Lokeshvara,
Chodaganga. The military once again organized a coup and arrested Chodaganga. The military became more dominant, ousting the monarchy; as a result, king Anikanga appealed for support from the Cholas. An army was sent, and Anikanga ascended the throne. The three month-old
Dharmásoka of Polonnaruwa was slaughtered along with the commander of the Polonnaruwa Royal Army.
The military once again seized power, and
Lilavati was installed on the throne. She was ousted by
Lokissara
Lokissara was a soldier who was enlisted with an army abroad and defeated the Royal Polonnaruwa Army deposing Lilavati. Lokissara ruled for nine months from 1210 to 1211 before the Royal Army restored Lilavati for the third time.
See also
* Lis ...
, a military commander. The Royal Army, being a rival to Lokissara's forces, killed him.
Sacking of Lilavati
Parakrama Pandyan II
Parakrama Pandyan II, also Pandu Parakramabahu of Polonnaruwa or Parakrama Pandu, was a Pandyan king who invaded the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa in the thirteenth century and ruled from 1212 to 1215 CE. His namesake royal Parakrama Pandyan I had rule ...
from
Pandyan Kingdom invaded Polonnaruwa, thus forcing Lilavati into exile. Parakrama Pandyan II ascended the throne, reigned between 1212 and 1215 CE. He was ousted by the invader,
Kalinga Magha
Kalinga Magha or Gangaraja Kalinga Vijayabahu ( ta, கலிங்க மாகன் / கலிங்க மாகோன் / கங்கராஜ காலிங்க விஜயவாகு மகன் , si, කාලිංග මාඝ, ...
, who in the aftermath founded the
Jaffna kingdom. Kalinga Magha ruled for 21 years until he was also expelled from Polonnaruwa in 1236, with an invasion from the south.
Succession
After defeating and expelling Kalinga Magha from Polonnaruwa,
Vijayabahu III moved the
capital to Dambadeniya. He founded the
House of Sri Sanga Bo.
Religion
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
continued to be the main religion in the Polonnaruwa era. Its monarchs enjoyed the exchange of religious jewels and other expensive items with the
Theravada Buddhist
''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
kings of
Siam
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
,
Burma
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
, and
Kampuchea. Prior to the Buddhist kings' takeover, there was a strong influence of
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
caused by Cholas. It is evident from the removal of cow shape in Polonnaruwa moonstone, and also by the presence of Shiva temples in Polonnaruwa. After Chola rule, many viharas were renovated by Vijayabahu I and his successor Parakramabahu I.
Buddhism
The primary form of Buddhism practiced in the Polonnaruwa kingdom was the orthodox school of Buddhism; following religious reforms in Burma, many monks there aligned themselves with the Polonnaruwan monks.
Distribution to Cambodia
Khmer King
Jayavarman VII
Jayavarman VII, posthumous name of Mahaparamasaugata ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៧, c. 1122–1218), was king of the Khmer Empire. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150–1160) and Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani.
He w ...
sent his son Tamalinda to Polonnaruwa to be ordained as a Buddhist monk and study Theravada Buddhism according to the Pali scriptural traditions. Tamalinda then returned to the Angkor, and promoted Buddhist traditions according to the Theravada training he had received, galvanizing the long-standing Theravada presence that had existed throughout the Angkor for centuries.
Gallery
Image:Galvihara-sunny2.jpg, Buddha statues in Gal Vihara
Image:Satmahal Prasada.jpg, Seven storeyed Satmahal Prasada
Image:Polonnaruwa-temple19.jpg, Moonstone of Polonnaruwa
Image:Polonnaruwa-panta.jpg, Parakrama Samudra built by king Parakramabahu I
Image:Giritale tank.JPG, Giritale Tank was the deepest tank in Sri Lanka during the Polonnaruwa era.
Image:Polonnaruwa 0305.jpg, Shiva Devalaya in Polonnaruwa, dating back to the early years of Chola rule in Sri Lanka.
File:Polonnaruwa Velaikkara Slab Inscription.jpg, Polonnaruwa velaikkara (Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
) inscription of Vijayabahu I
Vijayabahu I (born ''Prince Keerthi'') (ruled 1055–1110), also known as Vijayabahu the Great, was a medieval king of Sri Lanka. Born to a royal bloodline, Vijayabahu grew up under Chola occupation. He assumed rulership of the Ruhuna principalit ...
See also
*
Polonnaruwa period
The Polonnaruwa period was a period in the history of Sri Lanka from 1017, after the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and when the center of administration was moved to Polonnaruwa, to the end of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa in 1232.
The Kingdom of ...
*
List of Sri Lankan monarchs
The Sinhalese monarch -- anachronistically referred to as the Kings of Sri Lanka—featured the heads of state of the Sinhala Kingdoms, in what is today Sri Lanka.
The Sinhalese monarchy originates in the settlement of North Indian Indo ...
*
Kalinga (historical region)
*
Siri Parakum
, image = Siri Parakum sinhala film.jpg
, alt =
, caption =
, director = Somaratne Dissanayake
, producer = Renuka Balasooriya
, writer = Somaratne Dissanayake
, based_on = Early chroni ...
Notes
Citations
Sources
*
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Further reading
*von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1990). ''Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka''. (752 p.; 1620 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.
*von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1992). ''The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka - Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka'',
atalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D. C., 1 November 1992 – 26 September 1993 Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.
External links
Polonnaruwa www.ancientworlds.com
*
{{Sri Lanka topics
Overseas empires
Kingdoms of Sri Lanka
Former countries in South Asia
1017 establishments in Asia
11th-century establishments in Sri Lanka
States and territories established in 1017
1310 disestablishments in Asia
14th-century disestablishments in Sri Lanka
States and territories disestablished in 1310
Former monarchies of South Asia