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Jurji Zaydan ( ar, جرجي زيدان, ; December 14, 1861 – July 21, 1914) was a prolific Lebanese novelist, journalist, editor and teacher, most noted for his creation of the magazine '' Al-Hilal'', which he used to serialize his twenty three historical novels. His primary goal, as a writer and intellectual during the
Nahda The Nahda ( ar, النهضة, translit=an-nahḍa, meaning "the Awakening"), also referred to as the Arab Awakening or Enlightenment, was a cultural movement that flourished in Arabic-speaking regions of the Ottoman Empire, notably in Egypt, Leb ...
, was to make the common Arabic population know their own history through the entertaining medium of the novel. He has enjoyed a widespread popularity. He is also considered to have been one of the first thinkers to help formulate the theory of
Arab nationalism Arab nationalism ( ar, القومية العربية, al-Qawmīya al-ʿArabīya) is a nationalist ideology that asserts the Arabs are a nation and promotes the unity of Arab people, celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language ...
.


Early life

Jurji Zaydan was born on December 14, 1861 in Beirut to an
Eastern Orthodox Christian Eastern Orthodoxy, also known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, is one of the three main branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholicism and Protestantism. Like the Pentarchy of the first millennium, the mainstream (or " canonical ...
family of limited means. His father owned a restaurant and, being illiterate and uneducated himself, placed little importance on education. Zaydan dropped out of school after he completed an elementary education to help his father run the business. However, he maintained a desire to educate himself by attending night classes in English until, in 1881, at the age of 20, he was admitted to the
Syrian Protestant College The American University of Beirut (AUB) ( ar, الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت) is a private, non-sectarian, and independent university chartered in New York with its campus in Beirut, Lebanon. AUB is governed by a private, auto ...
as a medical student. He developed an interest in concepts of
individualism Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and to value independence and self-reli ...
such as ''
laissez-faire ''Laissez-faire'' ( ; from french: laissez faire , ) is an economic system in which transactions between private groups of people are free from any form of economic interventionism (such as subsidies) deriving from special interest groups ...
'' economics, the
Freemason Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
belief in a universal enlightenment, and
social Darwinism Social Darwinism refers to various theories and societal practices that purport to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology, economics and politics, and which were largely defined by scholars in We ...
. He was particularly influenced by
Samuel Smiles Samuel Smiles (23 December 1812 – 16 April 1904) was a British author and government reformer. Although he campaigned on a Chartist platform, he promoted the idea that more progress would come from new attitudes than from new laws. His prim ...
's book, ''
Self-Help Self-help or self-improvement is a self-guided improvement''APA Dictionary of Physicology'', 1st ed., Gary R. VandenBos, ed., Washington: American Psychological Association, 2007.—economically, intellectually, or emotionally—often with a subs ...
'' (published in 1859) to which he felt he could relate because of its emphasis on a rags-to-riches success story built upon hard work and perseverance. Furthermore, the book's focus on individualism and the self, a relatively new concept in Arab intellectual thought, would be a common theme in Zaydan's later historical novels. He attended the university around the same time as
Yaqub Sarruf Yaqub Sarruf (, 1852–1927) was a pioneering Lebanese writer, publisher, and translator. Sarruf was born in Al-Hadath, Lebanon. His father sent him to the American School in Abey, then to the Syrian Protestant College where he obtained a bach ...
(1852–1927), who first translated ''Self-Help'' into Arabic and would later found the magazine '' Al-Muqtataf'' (The Elite, 1876) with whom he shared ideals of modernizing the
Arab world The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...
and emphasis on individual success through hard work. Cornelius Van Dyck, an American professor of pathology at the Syrian Protestant College known for his translation of the Bible into Arabic in 1847, first encouraged Sarruf to translate ''Self-Help''. He also influenced Zaydan's worldview, leading him to adopt the idea that education was the most important factor for the progress and development of a people. Such widespread education could be reached only by widespread internal reform and modernization of all aspects of Arab government and daily life. Zaydan thus became critical of contemporaries such as Egyptian Moustafa Kamal Pascha and
Ahmed Orabi Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet. Etymology The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
, who were concerned solely with gaining independence from Western influence. Zaydan argued that reform must precede independence to ensure its success. In 1882, Professor E. Lewis was fired from the Syrian Protestant College for lightly praising
Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended ...
in a speech that he made to students of the college. Because the concept of
Darwinism Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations tha ...
was highly controversial in
Protestantism Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
, it had forbidden its inclusion in any curriculum. The firing led to mass protests amongst the students, many of whom left or were expelled for rebelling. Additionally, many of the European pastors running the college were beginning to favour English over Arabic as the language of education. Zaydan was among those who left Syria for Cairo, where many Lebanese intellectuals and members of the Nahda had already relocated as a reaction to increased Ottoman suppression. After a short stint in the Medical School of 'Ain Shams' and a military expedition with the British army to the Sudan, he turned his focus to developing his writing career. Yaqub Sarruf began publishing ''al-Muqtataf'' in 1876 with help from Cornelius Van Dyck and his Syrian Protestant College classmates
Faris Namir Faris may refer to:big savage * Fāris, ''horseman'' or ''cavalier'' in Arabic * Faris (name), a surname Places * Al-Faris, Salah al-Din Governorate, Iraq * Fariš, North Macedonia * Faris, Yemen * Faris, Greece * Faris Island Faris Island (a ...
and
Shahin Makarius Shahin or Shaheen , is a persian and kurdish male given name which is the generic term for ''hawk'' or ''falcon'', although in specific, the peregrine falcon. The name Shahin is a composite of two nouns, "''shah''" - king and "''īn''" - which is a ...
. The magazine was concerned primarily covering modern scientific advancements, the first to do so in the Arab world, and it was known particularly known for its controversial coverage of the theory of evolution and Darwinism in the early 1880s.


Career

After briefly serving as assistant editor for ''al-Muqtataf'', Zaydan began producing scholarly works on various historical topics. His interest in history propelled him to travel to London to research Arabic history in the library of the
British Museum The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
. His first book was published in 1889 with ''Ta'rikh al-Masuniya al-Amm'' in which he aimed to correct misconceptions about the
Freemasons Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
of which he was a member of the "Le Liban" lodge. The Freemason belief that universal knowledge existed and should be available to every person appealed to intellectuals like Zaydan as well as their quest to tap into this knowledge. In 1890, he published ''al-Ta'rikh al-'Alamm'' (History of the World), a rather thin
history of Asia The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. See History of the Mi ...
and of
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
with a focus on the
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
. Still, it is cited as one of the first non-Islamic histories to be written in Arabic, marking a turning point in the development of modern Arab education. Before, the entirety of Arab history had been recorded by the
ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
, the religious scholars of the
Caliphate A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
. It was the first attempt at recording a nonreligious version of Middle Eastern history. He then taught Arabic and opened a publishing house that he named
Dar al-Hilal Dar or DAR may refer to: Settlements * Dar es Salaam, the largest city of Tanzania and East Africa * Dar, Azerbaijan, a village * Dar, Iran, a village People * Dar (tribe), a Kashmiri tribe in India and Pakistan * Aleem Dar, Pakistani cricket ...
(The Crescent). His professional and personal life took a turn in 1891, with his marriage to Maryam Matar and the publication of his first historical novel, ''al-Mamluk al-Shariid'' (The Fleeing Mamluk). The novel met with such broad success that he was able to quit his teaching job. He would continue to steadily produce roughly one novel a year until his death in 1914. He began publishing his most influential project, the magazine ''Al-Hilal'' (The Crescent) in 1892. It originally contained five sections: a history of the most famous men and events; articles by him or other writers, serialization of his historical novels, monthly events and world news of Egypt and Syria, and eulogies and criticism about mostly contemporary literature. With its focus on informing the public about Islamic history and new concepts within Western civilization, the magazine often took on an encyclopedic tone. His primary aim remained steady throughout his publication of ''Al-Hilal'' and his historical novels: to provide the common Arabic people with an accurate sense of their own history in an accessible, entertaining way. Historical accuracy thus took firm precedence over plot and character development in each of his novels, and he was often critical of Western writers who bent historical fact to fit their literature, claiming such liberties misled the general public.


Historical novel

Zaydan would typically write his annual novel during the summer months when ''al-Hilal'' was not published to begin its serialisation in the fall. Every novel but one had an almost identical frame. He would begin each one by picking a historical topic. Though his novels did not follow a logical timeline, they were all centered on some aspect of Islamic history. Next, he would read all available sources on the topic in order to gain the most thorough understanding possible. Then, he would build a skeleton outline based entirely on historical fact. Finally, he would dream up characters and a romance through which he would relate the history. The scholar's accuracy with which he approached each novel is further demonstrated by his frequent inclusion of documented sources, frequent footnotes and introductory chapters that provided historic, cultural and geographic context to the historic event of choice. The entertainment aspect came in with a love story between fictitious characters and a mystery of some sort to maintain reader interest. His plots were often weak, relying mostly on convenient coincidences between characters to drive the love story and mystery, with almost all of his novels ending in a happy ending. His characters were often one-dimensional, with no insight given on their skills, background or their view of the time, institutions or society of which they were. Because he would present all character traits and personalities within the first mention of each character, character development was never present. The static characters, coupled with his straightforward, journalistic style were ideal for relating an objective and accurate history in the clearest way possible to the broad Arab public. Along with providing the general population with education, he also aimed to develop "
philosophy of language In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language and the relations between language, language users, and the world. Investigations may include inquiry into the nature of Meaning (philosophy of language), meanin ...
", which has the explicit purpose of informing, educating and enlightening. He was critical of writing that was accessible to only a small group of people, especially the esoteric language in religious scholarship. Because of the 10% literacy rate among men and 0.05% among women of the time, such gilded language was largely inaccessible to the general public. The introduction of the novel, especially one written in simple, clear language, is particularly noted for shifting the act of reading from the scholarly elite to the individual.


Death and impact

In 1910, the newly opened
Egyptian University Cairo University ( ar, جامعة القاهرة, Jāmi‘a al-Qāhira), also known as the Egyptian University from 1908 to 1940, and King Fuad I University and Fu'ād al-Awwal University from 1940 to 1952, is Egypt's premier public universi ...
offered Zaydan a professorship in Islamic History, which Zaydan accepted only reluctantly because of his unpopularity amongst conservative Muslims. He was dismissed before beginning in response to significant outcry from the Muslim public, who objected to his Christian origins and secular leanings. Zaydan's secular take on history was particularly controversial in ''Tarikh al-Tamaddun al-Islam'' (The History of the Islamic Civilization, 1901–1906), in which he offers a critical secular reading of Islamic history in at least five volumes. The experience embittered him until his unexpected death in 1914. Leaving behind a legacy that includes 23 published novels, numerous scholarly works, and a magazine then circulated in Persia, India, Japan, Western Africa, Zanzibar, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies, and North and South America, he was one of the most prolific and renowned Arab writers of the time. His impact left a lasting impression on the general Arab population as well as such literary giants as
Taha Hussein Taha Hussein (, ar, طه حسين; November 15, 1889 – October 28, 1973) was one of the most influential 20th-century Egyptian writers and intellectuals, and a figurehead for the Egyptian Renaissance and the modernist movement in the Middl ...
,
Naguib Mahfouz Naguib Mahfouz Abdelaziz Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Basha ( arz, نجيب محفوظ عبد العزيز ابراهيم احمد الباشا, ; 11 December 1911 – 30 August 2006) was an Egyptian writer who won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature. M ...
and poet Fadwa Tuqan. Beyond the amount of work that he produced in his life though, there is the shift in thinking he brought to the Nahda and those who followed it. Because the Arabic novel was written in an accessible language, individualized education took a huge step away from the religious elite and towards the general population. His printing press greatly aided in this attempt to spread new knowledge and ideas to people of all backgrounds. With the creation of a population that is thinking and speaking for itself came the creation of a dialogue. With that was the desire of the population to point out what is unsatisfactory in society and to come up with an idea on how to change it. yes its true


Major works


History

*1889: Tarikh al-Masuniya al-'Amm (General History of the Freemasons) *1890: Tarikh al-'Amm (The General History of the World) *1899: Tarikh al-Yunan wa al-Ruman (History of Greece and Rome) *1901–1906: Tarikh al-Tamaddun al-Islami 5 vols. (History of Islamic Civilization) *1907: al-'Arab qabl al-Islam (Arabs before Islam) *1907: (The three trips: historic accounts from visits to Istanbul, Europe, and Palestine) *1910–1913: Tarikh Adab al-luga al-'Arabiya 4 vols. (The History of Arabic Literature) *1912
Ṭabaqāt al-umam aw Al-salāʼil al-basharīyah
(The Generations of the Nations, or the Descendants of Humanity)


Autobiography

*1966: Mudakkirat Gurgi Zaidan (The Life of Jurji Zaydan)


Magazine

*1892–1914: '' Al Hilal'' (the Crescent) vol. I-XXII


Novels

*1891: al-Mamluk al-Sariid (The Fleeing
Mamluk Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
) *1892: Asir al-Mutamahdi (The Captive of the
Mahdi The Mahdi ( ar, ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, al-Mahdī, lit=the Guided) is a messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad w ...
Pretender) *1893: Istibdad al-Mamalik (Despotism of the Mamluks) *1893: Jihad al-Muhibbin *1896: Armansura al-Misriyya (Egyptian Armansura) *1897/98: Fatat Ghassan (Girls of Ghassan) *1899: 'Adra Quraish (Virgin of
Quraish The Quraysh ( ar, قُرَيْشٌ) were a grouping of Arab clans that historically inhabited and controlled the city of Mecca and its Kaaba. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born into the Hashim clan of the tribe. Despite this, many of the Qu ...
) *1900: 17
Ramadan , type = islam , longtype = Religious , image = Ramadan montage.jpg , caption=From top, left to right: A crescent moon over Sarıçam, Turkey, marking the beginning of the Islamic month of Ramadan. Ramadan Quran reading in Bandar Torkaman, Iran. ...
*1901: Ghadat Karbala (Battle of
Karbala Karbala or Kerbala ( ar, كَرْبَلَاء, Karbalāʾ , , also ;) is a city in central Iraq, located about southwest of Baghdad, and a few miles east of Lake Milh, also known as Razzaza Lake. Karbala is the capital of Karbala Governor ...
) *1902:
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf Abu Muhammad al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ibn al-Hakam ibn Abi Aqil al-Thaqafi ( ar, أبو محمد الحجاج بن يوسف بن الحكم بن أبي عقيل الثقفي, Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn al-Ḥakam ibn Abī ʿAqīl al-T ...
*1903: Fath al-Andalus (Conquest of
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The ...
) *1904: Sharl wa 'Abd al-Rahman (
Charles Martel Charles Martel ( – 22 October 741) was a Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of Francia from 718 until his death. He was a son of the Frankish statesm ...
and
Abd al-Rahman Abd al-Rahman ( ar, عبد الرحمن, translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān or occasionally ; DMG ''ʿAbd ar-Raḥman''; also Abdul Rahman) is a male Arabic Muslim given name, and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' Abd'', '' ...
) *1905: Abu Muslim al-Khurasani (
Abu Muslim Khorasani , image = Abu Muslim chastises a man for telling tales, Folio from the Ethics of Nasir (Akhlaq-e Nasiri) by Nasir al-Din Tusi (fol. 248r).jpg , caption = "Abu Muslim chastises a man for telling tales," Folio from the '' ...
) *1906: al-'Abbasa ukht al-Rashid (Abbasa Sister of
Harun al-Rashid Abu Ja'far Harun ibn Muhammad al-Mahdi ( ar , أبو جعفر هارون ابن محمد المهدي) or Harun ibn al-Mahdi (; or 766 – 24 March 809), famously known as Harun al-Rashid ( ar, هَارُون الرَشِيد, translit=Hārūn ...
) *1907: al-Amin wa al-Ma'mun (
al-Amin Abu Musa Muhammad ibn Harun al-Rashid ( ar, أبو موسى محمد بن هارون الرشيد, Abū Mūsā Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Rashīd; April 787 – 24/25 September 813), better known by his laqab of Al-Amin ( ar, الأمين, al-Amī ...
and
al-Ma'mun Abu al-Abbas Abdallah ibn Harun al-Rashid ( ar, أبو العباس عبد الله بن هارون الرشيد, Abū al-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh ibn Hārūn ar-Rashīd; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his regnal name Al-Ma'm ...
) *1908: 'Arus Farghana (Bride of
Farghana Fergana ( uz, Fargʻona/Фарғона, ), or Ferghana, is a district-level city and the capital of Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan. Fergana is about 420 km east of Tashkent, about 75 km west of Andijan, and less than 20 km fr ...
) *1909:
Ahmad ibn Tulun Ahmad ibn Tulun ( ar, أحمد بن طولون, translit=Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn; c. 20 September 835 – 10 May 884) was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria between 868 and 905. Originally a Turkic slave-soldier, in 868 I ...
*1910: 'Abd al-Rahman al-Nasir *1911: al-Inqilab al-'Uthmani (the Ottoman Revolution) *1912: Fatat al-Qairawan (Girls of Qairawan) *1913: Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (
Saladin Yusuf ibn Ayyub ibn Shadi () ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known by the epithet Saladin,, ; ku, سه‌لاحه‌دین, ; was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from an ethnic Kurdish family, he was the first of both Egypt an ...
) *1914: Shajarat al-Durr (The Pearl Tree)


Translations

Until recently, Zaydan's works were not available in English, but they have been translated in a dozen other languages.Zaidan Foundation
/ref> The Zaidan Foundation, set up by his grandson dr. George Zaidan to promote Arab culture, has commissioned translations of five of his twenty-two historical novels. The work began in 2009, and the books were due to be released in 2011 and 2012.: * ''The Conquest of Andalusia'' (''Fath al-Andalus''). Translation by Professor Roger Allen (
UPenn The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn or UPenn) is a Private university, private research university in Philadelphia. It is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and is ranked among the highest- ...
). October 2011. * ''The Battle of Poitiers'' (or ''Charles Martel and 'Abd al- Rahman''). Translated by Professor
William Granara William Granara is an American author, translator and scholar of Arabic language and literature. He studied at Georgetown University and the University of Pennsylvania, obtaining his PhD from the latter in Arabic and Islamic studies. He has worked ...
(
Harvard Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
). December 2011. * ''The Caliph's Sister – Harun al-Rashid and the Fall of the Persians'' (''al-Abbasa Ukht al-Rashid''). Translated by Professor Issa J. Boullata (
McGill McGill is a surname of Scottish and Irish origin, from which the names of many places and organizations are derived. It may refer to: People * McGill (surname) (including a list of individuals with the surname) * McGill family (Monrovia), a promin ...
). February 2012. * ''The Caliph's Heirs – Brothers at War: the Fall of Baghdad'' (''al-Amin wal-Ma'mun''). Translated by Professor
Michael Cooperson Michael Cooperson is an American scholar and translator of Arabic literature. He is professor of Arabic at UCLA. He has written two books: ''Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma'mun'' and ''Al-Mamun (Makers Of Th ...
(
UCLA The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public land-grant research university in Los Angeles, California. UCLA's academic roots were established in 1881 as a teachers college then known as the southern branch of the California ...
). February 2012. * ''Saladin and the Assassins'' (''Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi''). Translated by Professor
Paul Starkey Paul Starkey is a British scholar and translator of Arabic literature. Life and career Starkey received his doctorate from Oxford University; the subject of his dissertation was the works of the Egyptian writer Tawfiq Hakim. He is emeritus pro ...
(
Durham University , mottoeng = Her foundations are upon the holy hills ( Psalm 87:1) , established = (university status) , type = Public , academic_staff = 1,830 (2020) , administrative_staff = 2,640 (2018/19) , chancellor = Sir Thomas Allen , vice_cha ...
). April 2012. Also in 2011, the translator
Samah Selim Samah Selim is an Egyptian scholar and translator of Arabic literature. She studied English literature at Barnard College, and obtained her PhD from Columbia University in 1997. At present she is an associate professor at the Department of Africa ...
translated Zaydan's novel ''Shajarat al-Durr'' into English. It won the Arkansas Arabic Translation Award.


Notes


References


Sources

* Cachia, Pierre. "Literature: Arabic." ''Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa''. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004. 1418-422. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale, Cengage Learning, 2004. Web. * Moosa, Matti. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents, 1983. Print. * Philipp, Thomas, and Jirji Zaydan. Gurgi Zaidan: His Life and Thought. Beirut: Orient-Institut, 1979. Print. * Philipp, Thomas. Jurji Zaidan and the Foundations of Arab Nationalism. New York: Syracuse University Press, 2014. * Reid, Donald M. "Syrian Christians, the Rags-to-Riches Story, and Free Enterprise." International Journal of Middle East Studies 1.4 (1970): 358–67. * Sheehi, Stephen. "Doubleness and Duality: Jurji Zaydan's Al-Mamluk Al-Sharid and Allegories of Becoming." Journal of Arabic Literature 30.I (1999): 90–105. Index Islamicus. Academic Search Complete. Web. * Ware, L. B. "Women's Emancipation in the Middle East: Jurji Zaydan's View." Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 2.Iv (1979): 38–55. Index Islamicus. Web.


Works

*


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Zaydan, Jurji 1861 births 1914 deaths Arab nationalists Lebanese Arab nationalists Lebanese Christians Eastern Orthodox Christians from Lebanon Lebanese novelists Lebanese journalists Members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch Lebanese Freemasons Lebanese magazine founders