Johann Rudolf Glauber (10 March 1604 – 16 March 1670) was a German-Dutch

alchemist Alchemy (from the Arabic word , ) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practised in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first ...

and

chemist A chemist (from Greek ''chēm(ía)'' alchemy; replacing ''chymist'' from Medieval Latin ''alchemist'') is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of ...

. Some historians of science have described him as one of the first

chemical engineer A chemical engineer is a professional equipped with the knowledge of chemistry and other basic sciences who works principally in the chemical industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of Product (chemistry), products and deals with ...

s. His discovery of

sodium sulfate Sodium sulfate (also known as sodium sulphate or sulfate of soda) is the inorganic compound with formula Na2SO4 as well as several related hydrates. All forms are white solids that are highly soluble in water. With an annual production of 6 mill ...

in 1625 led to the compound being named after him: "Glauber's salt".

Life

Born in 1604 in Karlstadt am Main, the son of a

barber A barber is a person whose occupation is mainly to cut, dress, groom, style and shave hair or beards. A barber's place of work is known as a barbershop or the barber's. Barbershops have been noted places of social interaction and public discourse ...

, he was one of a large family and did not finish school, but is thought to have studied

pharmacy Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications, aiming to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of medication, medicines. It is a miscellaneous science as it ...

and visited laboratories.This section incorporates material from the German Wikipedia and the Galileo Project, which are referenced to German sources. He said that he was glad that he had not suffered the grind of high school but had instead learned by experience. He lived in

Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...

(1625),

Salzburg Salzburg is the List of cities and towns in Austria, fourth-largest city in Austria. In 2020 its population was 156,852. The city lies on the Salzach, Salzach River, near the border with Germany and at the foot of the Austrian Alps, Alps moun ...

Giessen Giessen, spelled in German (), is a town in the Germany, German States of Germany, state () of Hesse, capital of both the Giessen (district), district of Giessen and the Giessen (region), administrative region of Giessen. The population is appro ...

, Wertheim (1649–1651),

Kitzingen Kitzingen () is a town in the Germany, German state of Bavaria, capital of the Kitzingen (district), district Kitzingen. It is part of the Franconia geographical region and has around 21,000 inhabitants. Surrounded by vineyards, Kitzingen County i ...

(1651–1655),

Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

Frankfurt am Main Frankfurt am Main () is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the List of cities in Germany by population, fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located in the forela ...

Cologne Cologne ( ; ; ) is the largest city of the States of Germany, German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with nearly 1.1 million inhabitants in the city pr ...

and

Amsterdam Amsterdam ( , ; ; ) is the capital of the Netherlands, capital and Municipalities of the Netherlands, largest city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of 933,680 in June 2024 within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the City Re ...

(1640–1644, 1646–1649, 1656–death). He worked first manufacturing mirrors and later for two periods as

Apothecary ''Apothecary'' () is an Early Modern English, archaic English term for a medicine, medical professional who formulates and dispenses ''materia medica'' (medicine) to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern terms ''pharmacist'' and, in Brit ...

to the court in

, the second time as the Chief Apothecary, leaving because of the

Thirty Years War The Thirty Years' War, fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history. An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from battle, famine, or disease, whil ...

. In Amsterdam he built up a business manufacturing

pharmaceuticals Medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal product, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the ...

(including chemicals such as Glauber's salt). This led to both great financial success and, in 1649,

bankruptcy Bankruptcy is a legal process through which people or other entities who cannot repay debts to creditors may seek relief from some or all of their debts. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the deb ...

, which is the reason for his move from Amsterdam to Wertheim. He married twice and, with his second wife Helena Cornelius (married 1641), had eight children. His son Johannes Glauber probably helped him with his engraved illustrations. In 1660 he became seriously ill, which has been attributed to poisoning from the various heavy metals used in his work, Mercury was used in silvering mirrors and also in medicine.

Arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol As and atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens, and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony. Arsenic is not ...

and

antimony Antimony is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Sb () and atomic number 51. A lustrous grey metal or metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient t ...

were used in medicines.

Lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...

was used in the preparation of acids. These are all cumulative poisons. and in 1666 was crippled by a fall from a wagon and was confined to bed for the rest of his life. As a result, he had to sell off books and equipment to provide for his family. He died on 16 March 1670 in Amsterdam.

Work

Glauber conducted studies on the chemistry of wine production and had commercial success through licensing improvements. He was also an

apothecary ''Apothecary'' () is an Early Modern English, archaic English term for a medicine, medical professional who formulates and dispenses ''materia medica'' (medicine) to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern terms ''pharmacist'' and, in Brit ...

, supplying medicines and known for providing free medical treatment to the poor. He is known for his contributions to

inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry deals with chemical synthesis, synthesis and behavior of inorganic compound, inorganic and organometallic chemistry, organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subj ...

and the fact that he was able to live from the proceeds of chemical production based upon his discoveries and was thus an industrial

. His improvements to chemical processes and equipment (notably furnaces and

distillation Distillation, also classical distillation, is the process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture of two or more chemically discrete substances; the separation process is realized by way of the selective boiling of the mixt ...

devices) make him an early

. He was the first to produce concentrated

hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid, also known as muriatic acid or spirits of salt, is an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl). It is a colorless solution with a distinctive pungency, pungent smell. It is classified as a acid strength, strong acid. It is ...

in 1625 by combining

sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphuric acid (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth spelling), known in antiquity as oil of vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen, ...

and table salt. He also made an improved process for the manufacture of

nitric acid Nitric acid is an inorganic compound with the formula . It is a highly corrosive mineral acid. The compound is colorless, but samples tend to acquire a yellow cast over time due to decomposition into nitrogen oxide, oxides of nitrogen. Most com ...

in 1648 by heating

potassium nitrate Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with a sharp, salty, bitter taste and the chemical formula . It is a potassium salt of nitric acid. This salt consists of potassium cations and nitrate anions , and is therefore an alkali metal nit ...

with concentrated sulfuric acid. His production of

, which he called ''sal mirabilis'' or "wonderful salt", brought him fame and the honor of being named "Glauber's salt". It was an effective but relatively safe

laxative Laxatives, purgatives, or aperients are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation. Laxatives vary as to how they work and the side effects they may have. Certain stimulant, lubri ...

at a time when purging (emptying the digestive tract) was a popular treatment for many diseases. The chemical garden (or silica garden) was first observed by Glauber and described by him in 1646. In its original form, the chemical garden involved the introduction of ferrous chloride (FeCl₂) crystals into a solution of potassium silicate (K₂SiO₃, water glass). He was the first to synthesize and isolate antimony trichloride, arsenic trichloride, tin tetrachloride and

zinc chloride Zinc chloride is an Inorganic chemistry, inorganic chemical compound with the chemical formula, formula ZnCl2·''n''H2O, with ''n'' ranging from 0 to 4.5, forming water of hydration, hydrates. Zinc chloride, anhydrous and its hydrates, are colo ...

. In addition, he wrote about 40 books. A visionary one is ''Dess Teutschlands Wohlfahrt'' (''Germany's Prosperity''), in which he proposed the chemical industries as a means for Germany's economic recovery after the

Selected publications

*''Dess Teutschlands Wohlfahrt'' 1656–1661 *''Operis mineralis Oder Vieler künstlichen und nutzlichen metallischen Arbeiten Beschreibung'', 1651–1652 *''Opera omnia'' (Collected Works), 7 vols 1669 *''De Auri Tinctura sive Auro Potabili Vero: Was solche sey/ vnnd wie dieselbe von einem falschen vnd Sophistischen Auro Potabili zu vnterscheiden vnd zu erkennen ... wozu solche in Medicina könne gebraucht werden. Beschrieben vnd an Tag gegeben Durch Joh. Rud. Glauberum'' 1646 *''Furni Novi Philosophici Oder Beschreibung einer New-erfundenen Distilir-Kunst: Auch was für Spiritus, Olea, Flores, und andere dergleichen Vegetabilische/ Animalische/ und Mineralische Medicamenten/ damit ... können zugericht und bereytet werden'', 2 vols. 1646-1647 *''Miraculum Mundi, oder Außführliche Beschreibung der wunderbaren Natur/ Art/ vnd Eigenschafft/ deß Großmächtigen Subiecti: Von den Alten Menstruum Vniversale oder Mercurius Philosophorum genandt. . - an Tag geben/ vnd jetzo auff das newe corrigiret vnd verbesert Durch Iohann Rudolph Glaubern'', 7 vols. 1653–1658 *''Johann Rudolf Glauberi Apologia oder Verthaidigung gegen Christoff Farners Lügen und Ehrabschneidung'', 2 vols 1655 *''Zweyte Apologia, oder Ehrenrettung gegen Christoff Farnern, Speyerischen Thom-Stiffts Schaffnern zu Löchgaw, unmenschliche Lügen und Ehrabschneidung'' 1656 *''Tractatus De Medicina Universali, Sive Auro Potabili Vero. Oder Außführliche Beschreibung einer wahren Universal Medicin: wie auch deroselben Wunderbahrlichen grossen Krafft und Wirckung. . - Der jetzigen blinden Welt ... wolmeinend beschrieben und an Tag gegeben Durch Johan. Rudolph. Glauber'', 2 vols. 1657 *''Tractatus de natura salium'', 2 vols 1658–1659 *''Tractatus de signatura salium, metallorum, et planetarum, sive fundamentalis institutio, evident. monstrans, quo pacto facillime non solum salium, metall., atque planetarum ... supputari queant'' (1658)
Digital edition from 1703
*''Opera chymica: Bücher und Schrifften, so viel deren von ihme bißhero an Tag gegeben worden; jetzo vom neuen übersehen und vermehret'' (Collected Works), 2 vols 1658–1659
Digital edition
*''Explicatio oder Außlegung über die Wohrten Salomonis: In herbis, verbis, et lapidibus, magna est virtus'', 2 vols. 1663–1664 *''Libellus dialogorum, sive colloquia, nonnullorum Hermeticae medicinae, ac tincturae universalis'' 1663 *''Novum lumen chimicum: oder e. new-erfundenen u.d. Weldt noch niemahlen bekand-gemachten hohen Secreti Offenbarung'' 1664 *''Von den dreyen Anfangen der Metallen, alß Schwefel, Mercurio und Salz der Weisen'' 1666 *''Tractatus de tribus principiis metallorum, videlicet sulphure, mercurio et sale philosophorum, quemadmodzum illa in medicina, alchymia aliisque artibus associatis utiliter adhiberi valeant'' 1667 *''Glauberus Concentratus Oder Laboratorium Glauberianum: Darinn die Specification, vnd Taxation dehren Medicinalischen/ vnd Chymischen Arcanitäten begriffen; Sambt Aller dehren künstlichen Oefen vnd Instrumenten ... Durch Den Authorem ... obgedachter Raritäten ... an tag gegeben'' 1668 *''De Elia artista'' 1667 *''De tribus lapidibus ignium secretorum: Oder von den drey Alleredelsten Gesteinen'' 1667
Digital edition 1703
*''De lapide animali'' 1669 *''Libellus ignium: Oder Feuer-Buechlein, Darinnen von unterschiedlichen frembden und biß Dato noch gantz unbekandten Feuern gehandelt: Wozu sie dienen und was für unglaubliche Dinge und unaußsprechlicher Nutzen dem Menschlichen Geschlecht dadurch kommen und zu wegen gebracht werden koenne. Zu Gottes Ehre und Dienst deß Nechsten wolmeinend beschrieben und an Tag gegeben durch Joh. Rudoph. Glauberum'' 1663
Digital edition 1703

External sources

Notes and references

{{DEFAULTSORT:Glauber, Johann 1604 births 1670 deaths People from Karlstadt am Main 17th-century German chemists 17th-century Dutch scientists Dutch chemists Dutch alchemists German alchemists German chemical engineers 17th-century alchemists Engineers from Bavaria Emigrants from the Holy Roman Empire to the Dutch Republic

Life

Work

Selected publications

External sources

Further reading

Notes and references