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Folklore of Italy refers to the folklore and urban legends of Italy. Within the Italian territory, various peoples have followed one another over time, each of which has left its mark on current culture. Some tales also come from
Christianization Christianization ( or Christianisation) is to make Christian; to imbue with Christian principles; to become Christian. It can apply to the conversion of an individual, a practice, a place or a whole society. It began in the Roman Empire, conti ...
, especially those concerning demons, which are sometimes recognized by Christian
demonology Demonology is the study of demons within religious belief and myth. Depending on context, it can refer to studies within theology, religious doctrine, or pseudoscience. In many faiths, it concerns the study of a hierarchy of demons. Demons may b ...
. Folklore also includes folk music, folk dance and folk heroes.


Figures and legends of Italian folklore

Below is a list of the folklore figures who have animated Italian folk tales since ancient Rome.


Traditional characters

* In Italian folklore, the ''
Befana In Italian folklore, the Befana () is an old woman who delivers gifts to children throughout Italy on Epiphany Eve (the night of January 5) in a similar way to Santa Claus or the Three Magi Kings.Illes, Judika. ''Encyclopedia of Spirits: The ...
'' is an old woman who delivers gifts to children throughout Italy on
Epiphany Eve Twelfth Night (also known as Epiphany Eve) is a Christian festival on the last night of the Twelve Days of Christmas, marking the coming of the Epiphany. Different traditions mark the date of Twelfth Night as either or , depending on whether ...
(the night of January 5) in a similar way to
Santa Claus Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring children gifts during the late evening and overnigh ...
or the Three Magi Kings. A popular belief is that her name derives from the Feast of
Epiphany Epiphany may refer to: * Epiphany (feeling), an experience of sudden and striking insight Religion * Epiphany (holiday), a Christian holiday celebrating the revelation of God the Son as a human being in Jesus Christ ** Epiphany season, or Epipha ...
( it, Festa dell'Epifania). * ''Santa Lucia'' is a holy woman who delivers gifts to children of
Bergamo Bergamo (; lmo, Bèrghem ; from the proto- Germanic elements *''berg +*heim'', the "mountain home") is a city in the alpine Lombardy region of northern Italy, approximately northeast of Milan, and about from Switzerland, the alpine lakes Co ...
and province on 13 December, again like
Santa Claus Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring children gifts during the late evening and overnigh ...
. * Alberto da Giussano is a legendary character of the 12th century who would have participated, as a protagonist, in the
battle of Legnano The Battle of Legnano was a battle between the imperial army of Frederick Barbarossa and the troops of the Lombard League on May 29, 1176, near the town of Legnano in present-day Lombardy, in Italy. Although the presence of the enemy nearby w ...
on 29 May 1176. In reality, according to historians, the actual military leader of the Lombard League in the famous military battle with
Frederick Barbarossa Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (german: link=no, Friedrich I, it, Federico I), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death 35 years later. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt on ...
was
Guido da Landriano Guido da Landriano, or Landriani (Just checked now on the DOP (; before 1159 - after 1190), was an Italian condottiero and politician. He held the position of consul of the city of Milan and was the military leader of the troops of the Lombard L ...
. * The ''Mommotti'' in the Sardinian tradition they represent an imaginary figure used to frighten children. Sometimes they are associated with the black man or with an evil ogre and their job is to take away children who do not behave well. * The ''
Benandanti The ("Good Walkers") were members of an agrarian visionary tradition in the Friuli district of Northeastern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries. The claimed to travel out of their bodies while asleep to struggle against malevolent witches ...
'' were linked to a pagan-shamanic peasant cult based on the fertility of the land widespread in Friuli around the 16th-17th century. These were small congregations that worked to protect villages and the crops from the evil intervention of witches. * ''Bombasìn'' is a monstrous character of the tradition of the
Polesine Polesine (; vec, label=unified Venetian script, Połéxine ) is a geographic and historic area in the north-east of Italy whose limits varied through centuries; it had also been known as Polesine of Rovigo for some time. Nowadays it corresponds ...
and the Venetian Lagoon. Traditionally linked to the customs of Brusavecia and Carnival, the character has the appearance of an angry bull, and represents the most ferocious and wild side of human nature. Sometimes he is accompanied on parades by peasants who hold him in check with a chain, while the Bombasìn scares young and old in its path. Its name derives from cotton wool, a word that in turn derives from the Greek word for cotton, a material used to build the large black matel that wraps the Bombasìn. More recent tales connect him to the mythical character of King Hadrian and to the Gnomes of Polesine. * The ''Strego'' is a character of the popular tradition of Garfagnana. Unlike classic witches and sorcerers, dedicated to various exercises of witchcraft and aimed exclusively at procuring evil for people, the witch seems to have a more ambiguous attitude as it is usually disinterested in other human beings preferring to gather in groups to perform non-religious ceremonies. well identified. * The ''Orcolat'' is a monstrous being that popular tradition indicates as the cause of the earthquakes in
Friuli Friuli ( fur, Friûl, sl, Furlanija, german: Friaul) is an area of Northeast Italy with its own particular cultural and historical identity containing 1,000,000 Friulians. It comprises the major part of the autonomous region Friuli Venezia Giuli ...
. The Orcolat is a recurring figure especially in the tales of the popular tradition. * The ''Maskinganna'', literally "master of deceptions", was a legendary character of Sardinian folklore who enjoyed making fun of sleeping people making them awaken in terror. * The ''Pettenedda'' is a mythical creature that belongs to the Sardinian tradition and that would live in wells. The legend was probably invented by mothers to scare children and keep them away from wells. * The '' Giufà'' is referred to in some areas of the country. He is a "village fool", whose actions and words usually serve to provide a moral message. * The ''Marranghino'' is a fictional character of Lucanian folklore. Its myth shares common traits with that of ''Monachicchio'', and is particularly widespread in the
province of Matera The province of Matera ( it, Provincia di Matera; Materano: ) is a province in the Basilicata region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Matera. It has an area of and a total population of 201,133; the city Matera has a population of 61,204. T ...
. * The ''Sa Mama 'e su Sole'' ("the Mother of the Sun"), is a fantastic creature of the Sardinian tradition used to scare children who did not want to go to sleep on summer afternoons, when the sun was too strong. * The ''Babau'' (more rarely ''Babao'', ''Barabao'' or ''Bobo'') is in Italian folklore and other European regions, an imaginary monster with undefined characteristics that is traditionally invoked to scare children. * The ''
Orco The Orco ( pms, Eva d'òr, that is lit. ''Water of gold''; la, Orgus) is an Italian river. It originates in the Piedmontese slopes of Gran Paradiso and after about reaches the Po river near Chivasso, in the Metropolitan City of Turin. Its drain ...
'' is a fairy-tale character probably derived from the ogre of Roman mythology, an evil imaginary humanoid monster of enormous tonnage and with an irascible temperament, devouring human flesh, especially children.


Witches

* The ''Cogas'' or ''Bruxas'', in Sardinian traditions, are witches with the appearance of an old woman, having the ability to assume any shape and size, both animal and vegetable or even of people; that's why they are dangerous. * The ''Janare'', in
Benevento Benevento (, , ; la, Beneventum) is a city and ''comune'' of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino (or Beneventano) and the ...
popular belief, especially in the peasant one, are the witches of Benevento whose terrible misdeeds are told. * The ''Majare'' are the witches of the popular culture of Sicily. * The ''Pantàsema'' is an ancient female figure linked to the agricultural rites of the pagan culture of
Central Italy Central Italy ( it, Italia centrale or just ) is one of the five official statistical regions of Italy used by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), a first-level NUTS region, and a European Parliament constituency. Regions Central I ...
, particularly present in the Molise, Lazio,
Abruzzo , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1 ...
,
Umbria it, Umbro (man) it, Umbra (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , ...
e Marche territories. * The witches of Valcamonica were persecuted between the 16th century in the Valcamonica. * The '' Borda'' belong to the culture of the Emilia-Romagna and other areas of the Po Valley in Italy. It is a sort of witch that appears, blindfolded and horrible, both at night and on foggy days and kills anyone who has the misfortune to meet her. It is a personification of the fear related to
swamps A swamp is a forested wetland.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Swamps are considered to be transition zones because both land and water play a role in ...
and
marshlands A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p Marshes can often be found a ...
, and to ponds and canals, invoked by adults to scare children and keep them away from such potentially dangerous places. * The ''Masca'' is an important figure in Piedmontese folklore and popular belief, which attributes to her supernatural faculties handed down from mother to daughter or from grandmother to granddaughter. * The ''Bàsura'', a witch of Ligurian folklore whose tradition is widespread above all in the West, is bad, according to folklores. According to the legend, she is the witch who lives in the
Toirano Caves The Toirano Caves (Italian: ''Grotte di Toirano'') are a karst cave system in the municipality of Toirano, in the province of Savona, Liguria, Italy. Overview The area is situated close to the town of Toirano and few kilometers to the Ligurian P ...
(otherwise known as the ''Grotte della Strega'', "caves of witch"); the legend developed when, after the discovery of the caves, all the labyrinths were closed, and the wind made strange noises. Legend has it that the ''Bàsura'' does not want anyone to enter its caves. * The ''
Giubiana The Giubiana is a traditional celebration having great popularity in the northern Italian region of Lombardy, and particularly in Brianza, as well as in the region of Piedmont. During the last Thursday in January, bonfires are lit, on which the Giu ...
'' is a witch of Lombard and Piedmontese folklore, often thin, with very long legs and red stockings. It lives in the woods and thanks to its long legs, it never sets foot on the ground, but moves from tree to tree. So he observes all those who enter the woods and frightens them, especially the children. * The ''Maciara'' is a person to whom magical powers are attributed by the popular culture of Southern Italy.


Fairies

*The ''Janas'' were the fairies of Sardinian folklore. They lived in the so-called Domus de Janas, which were actually rock-cut tombs. According to other legends, they lived on top of the nurhags and spent their time weaving with a gold loom. *The ''Anguana'' or ''Agana'' or ''
Longana Longana is a village located on the eastern part of Ambae island in Penama Province, Vanuatu. It covers land area of approximately . Saratamata Saratamata, the headquarters of Penama Penama is one of the six provinces of Vanuatu, located ...
'' is an aquatic nymph belonging to
Alpine Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to: Places Europe * Alps, a European mountain range ** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range Australia * Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village * Alpine National P ...
mythology, also widespread in
Umbria it, Umbro (man) it, Umbra (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , ...
, and which is also spoken of in the area of ​​the Marmore Falls, in which it would live and/or refresh itself daily. There is also talk of this fairy in
Abruzzo , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1 ...
, Tuscany (in the area of ​​the Tuscan-Emilian
Apennines The Apennines or Apennine Mountains (; grc-gre, links=no, Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; la, Appenninus or  – a singular with plural meaning;''Apenninus'' (Greek or ) has the form of an adjective, which wou ...
), in Veneto and in Emilia-Romagna. As an aquatic nymph it lives only in fresh waters, such as lakes, rivers, streams, waterfalls or streams. * The ''Bella 'mbriana'', in the popular belief of the
Neapolitan Neapolitan means of or pertaining to Naples, a city in Italy; or to: Geography and history * Province of Naples, a province in the Campania region of southern Italy that includes the city * Duchy of Naples, in existence during the Early and Hig ...
people, is the spirit of the house.


Sprites

* The ''Buffardello'', a sprite present in the popular tradition of the
province of Lucca The province of Lucca ( it, provincia di Lucca) is a province in the Tuscany region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Lucca. It has an area of and a total population of about 390,000. There are 33 ''comuni'' (singular: ''comune'') in the p ...
and in particular of the Garfagnana but also of the
Lunigiana The Lunigiana () is a historical territory of Italy, which today falls within the provinces of Massa Carrara, Tuscany, and La Spezia, Liguria. Its borders derive from the ancient Roman settlement, later the medieval diocese of Luni, which no long ...
in the
province of Massa-Carrara The province of Massa-Carrara ( it, provincia di Massa-Carrara) is a province in the Tuscany region of central Italy. It is named after the provincial capital Massa, and Carrara, the other main town in the province. History The province of " ...
. * The ''Gnefro'' is a sprite of the popular culture of the city of
Terni Terni ( , ; lat, Interamna (Nahars)) is a city in the southern portion of the region of Umbria in central Italy. It is near the border with Lazio. The city is the capital of the province of Terni, located in the plain of the Nera river. It i ...
and the Valnerina. * The ''Muddittu'' is a sprite of the popular culture of Sicily. * The ''Mazzamurello'' or ''Mazzamaurello'' is a sprite of the folkloric-fairytale tradition of the Marche, Lazio and
Abruzzo , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1 ...
. * The ''Laurieddu'' is a malignant sprite of the folkloric imaginary of
Salento Salento (Salentino: ''Salentu'', Salentino Griko: ''Σαλέντο'') is a cultural, historical and geographic region at the southern end of the administrative region of Apulia in Southern Italy. It is a sub-peninsula of the Italian Peninsula, ...
. * The ''Lenghelo'' is a goblin or sprite present in the popular tradition of the
Castelli Romani The so-called Roman Castles (''Castelli Romani'' in Italian) are a group of ''comunes'' in the Metropolitan City of Rome. They are located a short distance south-east of the city of Rome, at the feet of the Alban Hills, in the territory correspo ...
which has its roots in ancient Rome. * The ''Linchetto'' is a sprite present in the popular tradition of the
province of Lucca The province of Lucca ( it, provincia di Lucca) is a province in the Tuscany region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Lucca. It has an area of and a total population of about 390,000. There are 33 ''comuni'' (singular: ''comune'') in the p ...
. * The ''Mazapégul'' is a sprite present in the popular tradition of Romagna. * The ''Mazaròl'' is a sprite of the folkloric-fairytale tradition of Dolomiti. * The ''Monachicchio'' is a sprite present in the popular tradition of
Basilicata it, Lucano (man) it, Lucana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = ...
. * The '' Monaciello'' is a legendary sprite from the ancient folklore of Naples. Monaciello, which means "little Monk" in
Neapolitan Neapolitan means of or pertaining to Naples, a city in Italy; or to: Geography and history * Province of Naples, a province in the Campania region of southern Italy that includes the city * Duchy of Naples, in existence during the Early and Hig ...
, is typically a benevolent man, short and stocky, dressed in a long monk's robe with a broad hood. * The ''Squasc'' is a mythological being from the folklore of eastern Lombardy. * The ''Tummà'' is a sprite present in the popular tradition of Apulia.


Ghosts

* The ''Confinati'' or the ''Anime Confinate'' are mythical figures widespread in the popular traditions of north-eastern Lombardy, especially in the
Bergamo Bergamo (; lmo, Bèrghem ; from the proto- Germanic elements *''berg +*heim'', the "mountain home") is a city in the alpine Lombardy region of northern Italy, approximately northeast of Milan, and about from Switzerland, the alpine lakes Co ...
valleys, Val Camonica and
Valtellina Valtellina or the Valtelline (occasionally spelled as two words in English: Val Telline; rm, Vuclina (); lmo, Valtelina or ; german: Veltlin; it, Valtellina) is a valley in the Lombardy region of northern Italy, bordering Switzerland. Tod ...
. * The ''Pandafeca'' is a dreamlike manifestation, commonly widespread in the imaginary of the
Abruzzo , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1 ...
culture. * According to legend, ''Azzurrina'' was the daughter of a certain Ugolinuccio di Montebello, lord of Montebello, in the modern
province of Rimini The province of Rimini ( it, provincia di Rimini) is a province in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. The provincial capital is the eponymous city of Rimini. The province borders the independent Republic of San Marino. As of 2019, the province ...
, in the mid-14th century. According to the folktale, she would have mysteriously disappeared. * The ''Bianca di Collalto'' tells of a young maid who was walled up alive due to the jealousy of her mistress. His ghost appears to the members of the
Collalto family The House of Collalto (full name - ''Princes of Collalto and San Salvatore'') is an old and distinguished Austro-Italian noble house of Lombard origin, named after their seat at Collalto in Susegana, now in the Province of Treviso in Italy. Thr ...
to announce joys or misfortunes. * The ''Guria'', is a spirit of the popular tradition of
Barletta Barletta () is a city, ''comune'' of Apulia, in south eastern Italy. Barletta is the capoluogo, together with Andria and Trani, of the Province of Barletta-Andria-Trani. It has a population of around 94,700 citizens. The city's territory belo ...
that inhabits the houses, often identified as the "spirit of the house".


Demons

*
Aamon Aamon (also known as Amon and Nahum), in demonology, is a Grand Marquis of Hell who governs 40 infernal legions, and the 7th spirit of the Goetia. He is the demon of life and reproduction. Description The names Aamon and Amon come from the go ...
is a Grand Marquis of
Hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location in the afterlife in which evil souls are subjected to punitive suffering, most often through torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells ...
who governs 40 infernal legions, and the 7th spirit of the Goetia. He is the demon of life and reproduction. According to the ''
Dictionnaire Infernal The ''Dictionnaire infernal'' ( en, "Infernal Dictionary") is a book on demonology, describing demons organised in hierarchies. It was written by Jacques Collin de Plancy and first published in 1818. There were several editions of the book; perh ...
'' by
Collin de Plancy Jacques Albin Simon Collin de Plancy (28 January 1793 in Plancy-l'Abbaye – 1881 in Paris) was a French occultist, demonologist and writer. He published several works on occultism and demonology. Biography He was born Jacques Albin Simon Col ...
, he commands 40 legions of demons and carries the title of Prince. * ''Su Ammuntadore'' or ''Ammuntadori'' is a creature of Sardinian mythology that would attack people in their sleep through nightmares. * ''Maimone'' or ''Mamuthone'' is a divinity of nature current in the mythology and culture of Sardinia. He was transformed, with the advent of Christianity, into a demon. * Krampus is a horned,
anthropomorphic Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
figure in Central and Eastern
Alpine Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to: Places Europe * Alps, a European mountain range ** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range Australia * Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village * Alpine National P ...
folklore who, during the Christmas season, scares children who have misbehaved. Krampus acts as an anti–
Saint Nicholas Saint Nicholas of Myra, ; la, Sanctus Nicolaus (traditionally 15 March 270 – 6 December 343), also known as Nicholas of Bari, was an early Christian bishop of Greeks, Greek descent from the maritime city of Myra in Asia Minor (; modern-da ...
, who, instead of giving gifts to good children, gives warnings and punishments to the bad children. Krampus belongs to the Pre-Christian Alpine traditions. *
Incubus An incubus is a demon in male form in folklore that seeks to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women; the corresponding spirit in female form is called a succubus. In medieval Europe, union with an incubus was supposed by some to result in t ...
is a demon in male form in folklore that seeks to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women. In medieval Europe, union with an incubus was supposed by some to result in the birth of witches, demons, and deformed human offspring. Parallels exist in many cultures. Walter Stephens alleges in "Demon Lovers", some traditions hold that repeated sexual activity with an incubus or succubus may result in the deterioration of health, an impaired mental state, or even death. *
Succubus A succubus is a demon or supernatural entity in folklore, in female form, that appears in dreams to seduce men, usually through sexual activity. According to religious tradition, a succubus needs male semen to survive; repeated sexual activit ...
is a demon or supernatural entity in folklore, in female form, that appears in dreams to
seduce Seduction has multiple meanings. Platonically, it can mean "to persuade to disobedience or disloyalty", or "to lead astray, usually by persuasion or false promises". Strategies of seduction include conversation and sexual scripts, paralingual ...
men, usually through sexual activity. According to
religious tradition Religion is usually defined as a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, tran ...
s, repeated sexual activity with a succubus can cause poor physical or mental health, even death. In modern representations, a succubus is often depicted as a beautiful seductress or enchantress, rather than as demonic or frightening.


Animal creatures

*
Badalisc __NOTOC__ The Badalisc (also Badalisk) is a mythical creature of the Val Camonica, Italy, in the southern central Alps. The Badalisc is represented today as a creature with a big head covered with a goat skin, two small horns, a huge mouth and gl ...
is a
mythical Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrati ...
creature of the Val Camonica, in the southern central Alps. * Thyrus, the dragon of
Terni Terni ( , ; lat, Interamna (Nahars)) is a city in the southern portion of the region of Umbria in central Italy. It is near the border with Lazio. The city is the capital of the province of Terni, located in the plain of the Nera river. It i ...
, is one of the most famous dragons of Italian folklore, a river dragon that besieged Terni in the Middle Ages. One day, a young and brave knight of the noble House of Cittadini, tired of witnessing the death of his fellow citizens and the depopulation of Terni, faced the dragon and killed it. From that day, the town assumed the creature in its coat of arms, accompanied by a Latin inscription: "''Thyrus et amnis dederunt signa Teramnis''" ("Thyrus and the river gave their insignia to Terni"), that stands under the banner of the town of Terni, honoring this legend. * The Ferocious Beast, an enormous animal similar to a wolf. It ate pets and children and terrorized Milan during the 1790s and the Milanese organized a hunt against it. After months they killed the Ferocious Beast and displayed its body at the University of Pavia; but it is no longer there and has been missing for decades. Informal sources claim it was stolen, destroyed during World War II, or removed specifically by German actions during that war. * The Caladrius, according to Roman mythology, is a snow-white bird that lives in the king's house. * The ''Tarantasio'' is the name of a legendary dragon that terrorized the inhabitants of the ancient Gerundo Lake (now dried up), in the area of Lodi, in Lombardy. This mythological animal was believed to devour children, destroy boats, and with its pestilential breath, soak up the air and cause a strange disease called yellow fever.L. Veronelli, ''Lombardia'', Garzanti, Milano, 1968, p. 171 * The
Catoblepas The catoblepas (pl. catoblepones; from the Greek καταβλέπω (katablépō) "to look downwards") is a legendary creature from Ethiopia (Africa), first described by Pliny the Elder and later by Claudius Aelianus. It is said to resemble a ca ...
is a legendary creature described by Pliny the Elder and
Claudius Aelianus Claudius Aelianus ( grc, Κλαύδιος Αἰλιανός, Greek transliteration ''Kláudios Ailianós''; c. 175c. 235 AD), commonly Aelian (), born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus ...
. In ancient Greek and Roman mythology he was an "African quadruped, depicted with his heavy head always lowered to the ground". * The
Amphisbaena The amphisbaena (, , or , plural: amphisbaenae; grc, ἀμφίσβαινα) is a mythological, ant-eating serpent with a head at each end. The creature is alternatively called the amphisbaina, amphisbene, amphisboena, amphisbona, amphista, a ...
is a mythical snake with two heads, one at each extremity of the body, and eyes that shine like lamps. The amphesibena as a mythological and legendary creature has been cited by Lucan, Pliny the Elder, and Dante Alighieri. * The Erchitu is a legendary creature of Sardinian tradition. According to the ancient legends of Sardinia, a man who committed a serious fault would turn on full moon nights into a white ox with two large horns. * The ''Marroca'' is a mythical animal which, according to peasant belief, lives essentially in the wetlands of the countryside of the
Valdichiana The Val di Chiana, Valdichiana, or Chiana Valley is an alluvial valley of central Italy, lying on the territories of the provinces of Arezzo and Siena in Tuscany and the provinces of Perugia and Terni in Umbria. Geography The Val di Chiana is ...
,
Siena Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena. The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centuri ...
,
Arezzo Arezzo ( , , ) , also ; ett, 𐌀𐌓𐌉𐌕𐌉𐌌, Aritim. is a city and ''comune'' in Italy and the capital of the province of the same name located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about southeast of Florence at an elevation of above sea level ...
, and
Umbria it, Umbro (man) it, Umbra (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , ...
. * The ''Ozena'' is a legendary octopus described by Pliny the Elder and its name means "stinking octopus" due to its unpleasant smell. Most of the ozenas were small in size and remained at the bottom of the sea. In rare cases, some larger species attacked and ate humans. * The ''Badalischio'', it is said that this monster was born in the Gorga Nera, a small lake near the source of the Borbotto (
Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park The Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna is a national park in Italy. Created in 1993, it covers an area of about , on the two sides of the Apennine watershed between Romagna and Tuscany, and is divided between th ...
, Tuscany). According to legend, he is endowed with a deadly poison. * The ''Caddos birdes'' were fantastic creatures of Sardininian folklore, which appeared in the form of small horses with green skins very rare and very difficult to spot. * The ''Serpente regolo'' or ''Regulus'' is a fantastic animal of the Tuscan,
Umbria it, Umbro (man) it, Umbra (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , ...
n, Abruzzese and Sabine traditions. It would be a large snake with a head "as big as that of a child", which lives in the scrublands, fields and ravines of the mountains. * The ''Biddrina'' is a large aquatic snake which, according to legend, lives in the wetlands of the countryside of the province of Caltanissetta. * The Jaculus is a small mythical
serpent Serpent or The Serpent may refer to: * Snake, a carnivorous reptile of the suborder Serpentes Mythology and religion * Sea serpent, a monstrous ocean creature * Serpent (symbolism), the snake in religious rites and mythological contexts * Serp ...
or dragon. It can be shown with wings and sometimes has front legs. It is also sometimes known as the javelin snake. It was said that the jaculus hid in the trees and sprang out at its victims. The force of it launching itself at the victim led to the association with javelins.
Pliny Pliny may refer to: People * Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), ancient Roman nobleman, scientist, historian, and author of ''Naturalis Historia'' (''Pliny's Natural History'') * Pliny the Younger (died 113), ancient Roman statesman, orator, w ...
described it as follows: "The jaculus darts from the branches of trees; and it is not only to our feet that the serpent is formidable, for these fly through the air even, just as though they were hurled from an engine." Lucan also describes the attack of the jaculus in the '' Pharsalia''. * In the folklore of Lombardy, more precisely of the provinces of
Bergamo Bergamo (; lmo, Bèrghem ; from the proto- Germanic elements *''berg +*heim'', the "mountain home") is a city in the alpine Lombardy region of northern Italy, approximately northeast of Milan, and about from Switzerland, the alpine lakes Co ...
and
Cremona Cremona (, also ; ; lmo, label=Cremunés, Cremùna; egl, Carmona) is a city and ''comune'' in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po (river), Po river in the middle of the ''Pianura Padana'' (Po Valley). It is the capi ...
, the ''Gata Carogna'' is a monstrous animal which would infest the dark alleys of the cities. She looks like a large red cat, with shaggy fur and an angry look, who would attack children to steal their souls. * The ''Gatto mammone'' is a fictional monster of popular Italian folklore, in the form of a huge terrifying-looking cat. Such a cat would have been dedicated to frightening the grazing herds and would have had demonic movements and expressions. His cry would be a cross between a roar and a meow. The monster would be so stealthy as to attack unsuspecting victims and tear them to pieces without leaving even the bones. * The ''Gigiàtt'' is, in Lombard folklore traditions, a deer of enormous proportions that feeds on hikers and travelers. * The ''Scultone'', in Sardinian popular belief, was a dragon-like creature that killed men and animals near Baunei. * The ''Bisso Galeto'' is a legendary creature of the
Veronese Veronese is the Italian word denoting someone or something from Verona, Italy and may refer to: * Veronese Riddle, a popular riddle in the Middle Ages * ''Veronese'' (moth), a moth genus in the family Crambidae * Monte Veronese, an Italian chees ...
valleys. It has the body and head of a rooster, with a large red crest, wings full of spines and a snake's tail. Its normal size is quite small, making it similar to a small snake, but the Bisso Galeto can increase and decrease the length of its body at its will. * The
Tatzelwurm In the folklore of the Alpine region of south-central Europe, the ''Tatzelwurm'' or ''Stollenwurm, Stollwurm'' is a lizard-like creature, often described as having the face of a cat, with a serpent-like body which may be slender or stubby, with ...
is a legendary creature of the
Alps The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...
, described as a lizard with only four or two short legs and a stubby tail.


Magic items

* The ''Scrixoxiu'', in Sardinian traditions, is a casket belonging to a spirit of a deceased family member. * The ''Libro del comando'' is the name by which the black magic texts containing the description of the methods to know and distinguish benign and evil spirits were indicated, as well as the magic formulas to invoke their intervention, in order to obtain their help for means of "responses and revelations", the circulation of which was fought by authority. * The ''Libro del Cinquecento'' or ''Libru do cincucentu'' is a legendary book that would be kept in
Ficarra Ficarra is a '' comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Messina in the Italian region Sicily, located about east of Palermo and about west of Messina, in the Monti Nebrodi. It is surrounded by woods of hazel and olive trees. Histo ...
, Sicily. Legend has it that it was a magic book that contained formulas that made it possible to overcome all problems.


Other tales

* An
egg of Columbus An egg of Columbus or Columbus' egg ( it, uovo di Colombo ) refers to a brilliant idea or discovery that seems simple or easy after the fact. The expression refers to an apocryphal story, dating from at least the 16th century, in which it is sai ...
refers to a brilliant idea or discovery that seems simple or easy after the fact. The expression refers to an
apocrypha Apocrypha are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin. The word ''apocryphal'' (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to writings which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered ...
l story, dating from at least the 16th century, in which it is said that Christopher Columbus, having been told that finding a new trade route was inevitable and no great accomplishment, challenges his critics to make an
egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the a ...
stand on its tip. After his challengers give up, Columbus does it himself by tapping the egg on the table to flatten its tip. The story is often alluded to when discussing
creativity Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and valuable is formed. The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition, or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a printed literary ...
. The term has also been used as the trade name of a tangram puzzle and several mechanical puzzles. It also shows that anything can be done by anyone with the right set of skills; however, not everyone knows how to do it. * Cola Pesce, also known as ''Pesce Cola'' (i.e., Nicholas Fish) is an Italian folktale about a
merman Mermen, the male counterparts of the mythical female mermaids, are legendary creatures, which are male human from the waist up and fish-like from the waist down, but may assume normal human shape. Sometimes they are described as hideous and other ...
, mentioned in literature as early as the 12th century. Many variants and retellings have been recorded. The first known literary mention was by a 12th-century poet, Raimon Jordon of Provencal, who referred to a "Nichola de Bar" (Nicholas of Bari) who lived with the fishes. * The ''
Scrofa semilanuta The ''scrofa semilanuta'' (in Italian: "half-woollen boar") is an ancient emblem of the city of Milan, Italy, dating back at least to the Middle Ages — and, according to a local legend, to the very foundation of Milan. Several ancient sources (i ...
'' is an ancient emblem of the city of Milan, Italy, dating back at least to the Middle Ages — and, according to a local legend, to the very foundation of Milan. Several ancient sources (including Sidonius Apollinaris, Datius, and, more recently,
Andrea Alciato Andrea Alciato (8 May 149212 January 1550), commonly known as Alciati (Andreas Alciatus), was an Italian jurist and writer. He is regarded as the founder of the French school of legal humanists. Biography Alciati was born in Alzate Brianza, n ...
)Claudio Beretta, ''Letteratura dialettale milanese'', Ulrico Hoepli, pp. 21-26; se

/ref> have argued that the scrofa semilanuta is connected to the etymology of the ancient name of Milan, '' Mediolanum'', and this is still occasionally mentioned in modern sources, although this interpretation has long been dismissed by scholars. * According to Italian tradition, the Days of the Blackbird are the last three days of January. Also according to tradition they would be the three coldest days of the year. According to tradition, the explanation of the phrase derives from a legend according to which, to shelter from the great cold, a blackbird and its chicks, originally white, took refuge inside a chimney, from which they emerged on February 1st, all black because of the soot . From that day on, all the blackbirds were black. * According to a popular Italian tradition, the Days of the Old Woman (or Lent Days) are the last three days of March, ie March 29, 30 and 31, in which it is believed that the cold of the recently finished winter often returns. : are considered the coldest days of spring. The Days of the Old Woman owe their name to an ancient popular legend: once, when March was only 28 days old, an old woman, now anticipating the warmth of spring, said: "March, now you can no longer harm me, because today it is already April and the Sun is already up! "; so it was that March, offended, asked for three more days in April and used it to bring the winter cold back to earth and make the old woman sick. * The
Rape of the Sabine Women The Rape of the Sabine Women ( ), also known as the Abduction of the Sabine Women or the Kidnapping of the Sabine Women, was an incident in Roman mythology in which the men of Rome committed a mass abduction of young women from the other citi ...
, also known as the "Abduction of the Sabine Women" or the "Kidnapping of the Sabine Women", was an incident in Roman mythology in which the men of Rome committed a mass abduction of young women from the other cities in the region. It has been a frequent subject of painters and sculptors, particularly during the Renaissance and post-Renaissance eras. The word "rape" (cognate with "rapto" in Portuguese and other Romance languages, meaning "kidnap") is the conventional translation of the Latin word used in the ancient accounts of the incident. Modern scholars tend to interpret the word as "abduction" or "kidnapping" as opposed to a sexual assault. *
Madonna Oriente Madonna Oriente or Signora Oriente (Lady of the East), also known as La Signora del Gioco (The Lady of the Game), are names of an alleged religious figure, as described by two Italian women who were executed by the Inquisition in 1390 as witches. ...
is an Italian mythical figure, often mentioned in the trials held in cases of
witch-hunt A witch-hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. The classical period of witch-hunts in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America took place in the Early Modern perio ...
. Connected to pagan cults, it has been placed side by side with the figures of Diana,
Herodias Herodias ( el, Ἡρῳδιάς, ''Hērǭdiás''; ''c.'' 15 BC – after AD 39) was a princess of the Herodian dynasty of Judaea during the time of the Roman Empire. Christian writings connect her with John the Baptist's execution. Family relat ...
,
Perchta or (English: Bertha), also commonly known as and other variations, was once known as a goddess in Alpine paganism in the Upper German and Austrian regions of the Alps. Her name may mean "the bright one" ( goh, beraht, bereht, from Proto-Germ ...
. It could manifest itself in various forms, usually as a ghost or as a huntress, while at times it appeared as a beautiful girl who lived in the woods, dressed only in hair, with a look capable of bewitching people. * The Tomb of Lars Porsena is a legendary ancient building in what is now central Italy, tomb of the Etruscan king
Lars Porsena Lars Porsena (or Porsenna; Etruscan: ) was an Etruscan king (lar) known for his war against the city of Rome. He ruled over the city of Clusium ( Etruscan: ; modern Chiusi). There are no established dates for his rule, but Roman sources often ...
. Allegedly built around 500 BCE at
Clusium Clusium ( grc-gre, Κλύσιον, ''Klýsion'', or , ''Kloúsion''; Umbrian:''Camars'') was an ancient city in Italy, one of several found at the site. The current municipality of Chiusi ( Tuscany) partly overlaps this Roman walled city. The R ...
(modern
Chiusi Chiusi ( Etruscan: ''Clevsin''; Umbrian: ''Camars''; Ancient Greek: ''Klysion'', ''Κλύσιον''; Latin: ''Clusium'') is a town and '' comune'' in the province of Siena, Tuscany, Italy. History Clusium (''Clevsin'' in Etruscan) was ...
, in south-eastern Tuscany), and was described as follows by the
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
writer
Marcus Varro Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes ...
(116–27 BCE). In the 18th century Angelo Cortenovis proposed that the tomb of Lars Porsena was a machine for conducting lightning. * Dina and Clarenza are two women connected in legend with the historical siege of
Messina Messina (, also , ) is a harbour city and the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of more than 219,000 inhabitants in t ...
by
Charles I of Anjou Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) i ...
during the
Sicilian Vespers The Sicilian Vespers ( it, Vespri siciliani; scn, Vespiri siciliani) was a successful rebellion on the island of Sicily that broke out at Easter 1282 against the rule of the French-born king Charles I of Anjou, who had ruled the Kingdom of Si ...
in August 1282. Dina and Clarenza, two Messinese women, were heroines who, in legend, opposed the assaults of the Angevin forces. The two women were standing guard on the wall. As soon as they saw the enemies, they did all they could to repel the attack. While Dina continually hurled rocks down on the enemy soldiers, Clarenza rang the bells in the
campanile A bell tower is a tower that contains one or more bells, or that is designed to hold bells even if it has none. Such a tower commonly serves as part of a Christian church, and will contain church bells, but there are also many secular bell towe ...
of the
Duomo ''Duomo'' (, ) is an Italian term for a church with the features of, or having been built to serve as, a cathedral, whether or not it currently plays this role. Monza Cathedral, for example, has never been a diocesan seat and is by definition n ...
, from which she awakened the whole city. Thus the Messinese rushed to the defense of their city and repelled the attack. *
Heliodorus of Catania Heliodorus of Catania ( it, Eliodoro, ; died Catania, 778) is a semi-legendary personage accused by his contemporaries of being a necromancer practicing witchcraft. Son of a noble Sicilian family, he was originally a Christian, and was even a cand ...
is a semi-legendary personage accused by his contemporaries of being a necromancer practicing
witchcraft Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have ...
. * Pietro Bailardo or Pietro Baialardo is a legendary character accused by his contemporaries of being a magician and necromancer in direct relationship with the devil. * Maria Puteolana is a semi-legendary figure in the history of Pozzuoli. The only reference to this figure is provided by Francesco Petrarca who in 1341 with
Robert, King of Naples Robert of Anjou ( it, Roberto d'Angiò), known as Robert the Wise ( it, Roberto il Saggio; 1276 – 20 January 1343), was King of Naples, titular King of Jerusalem and Count of Provence and Forcalquier from 1309 to 1343, the central figure of It ...
, would have visited Pozzuoli in order to meet the "very famous virago Maria, later called Maria Puteolana".. * ''Pacciûgo'' and ''Pacciûga'' are two figures remembered in two statues to which one of the oldest legends with a religious background in Genoa is linked. * The Legend of San Pietro al Monte or the Legend of the White Boar of
Civate Civate ( Brianzöö: ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Lecco in the Italian region Lombardy, located about northeast of Milan and about southwest of Lecco. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 3,898 and an area of .Al ...
wants to explain the foundation of the church of the same name as an act of devotion of the Lombard King Desiderius. * ''Gammazita'' is a young girl, the protagonist of a
Catania Catania (, , Sicilian and ) is the second largest municipality in Sicily, after Palermo. Despite its reputation as the second city of the island, Catania is the largest Sicilian conurbation, among the largest in Italy, as evidenced also by ...
legend linked to the history of the Angevins of Sicily. Its name was also given to a site in the historic center of the Sicilian city, a natural cavity called the well of Gammazita. * The beast of
Cusago Cusago ( lmo, Cusagh ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Milan in the Italian region Lombardy, located about west of Milan. Cusago borders the following municipalities: Milan, Cornaredo, Settimo Milanese, Bareggio, C ...
was a she-wolf who sowed panic during the summer of 1792 in the Cusago wood in the Duchy of Milan. The animal, as it also happened in that period in similar cases in Lombardy, but also elsewhere, had become anthropophagous and killed and devoured several victims, always boys and girls.


Folk heroes

*
Ducetius Ducetius ( grc, Δουκέτιος) (died 440 BCE) was a Hellenized leader of the Sicels and founder of a united Sicilian state and numerous cities.LiviusDucetius of Sicily Retrieved on 25 April 2006. It is thought he may have been born around ...
– He was a Hellenized leader of the Sicels and founder of a united Sicilian state and numerous cities.Livius
Ducetius of Sicily
Retrieved on 25 April 2006.
It is thought he may have been born around the town of
Mineo Mineo ( scn, Minìu, Greek: ''Menaion'' and ''Μεναί'', Latin: ''Menaeum'' and ''Menaenum'') is a town and '' comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Catania, part of Sicily. It lies southwest of Catania, from Ragusa, from Gela, and from ...
. His story is told through the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BCE, who drew on the work of
Timaeus Timaeus (or Timaios) is a Greek name. It may refer to: * ''Timaeus'' (dialogue), a Socratic dialogue by Plato * Timaeus of Locri, 5th-century BC Pythagorean philosopher, appearing in Plato's dialogue *Timaeus (historian) (c. 345 BC-c. 250 BC), Gree ...
. He was a native Sicilian, but his education was Greek and was very much influenced by Greek civilization in Sicily. *
Hermocrates Hermocrates (; grc-gre, Ἑρμοκράτης, c. 5th century – 407 BC) was an ancient Syracusan general during the Athenians' Sicilian Expedition in the midst of the Peloponnesian War. He is also remembered as a character in the '' Timaeus' ...
– He was an ancient
Syracusan Syracuse ( ; it, Siracusa ; scn, Sarausa ), ; grc-att, Συράκουσαι, Syrákousai, ; grc-dor, Συράκοσαι, Syrā́kosai, ; grc-x-medieval, Συρακοῦσαι, Syrakoûsai, ; el, label=Modern Greek, Συρακούσε� ...
general during the
Athenians Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
'
Sicilian Expedition The Sicilian Expedition was an Athenian military expedition to Sicily, which took place from 415–413 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Athens on one side and Sparta, Syracuse and Corinth on the other. The expedition ended in a de ...
in the midst of the Peloponnesian War. He is also remembered as a character in the ''
Timaeus Timaeus (or Timaios) is a Greek name. It may refer to: * ''Timaeus'' (dialogue), a Socratic dialogue by Plato * Timaeus of Locri, 5th-century BC Pythagorean philosopher, appearing in Plato's dialogue *Timaeus (historian) (c. 345 BC-c. 250 BC), Gree ...
'' and ''
Critias Critias (; grc-gre, Κριτίας, ''Kritias''; c. 460 – 403 BC) was an ancient Athenian political figure and author. Born in Athens, Critias was the son of Callaeschrus and a first cousin of Plato's mother Perictione. He became a leading ...
'' dialogues of Plato. The first historical reference to Hermocrates comes from Thucydides, where he appears at the
congress of Gela The Congress of Gela was a diplomatic meeting between a number of Sicilian cities in 424 BC. It brought a temporary halt to several years of warfare between cities on the island. At the conference, the Sicilian cities agreed to a Syracusan prop ...
in 424 BC giving a speech demanding the Sicilian Greeks stop their quarrelling and unite against the Athenians, who had been attacking the Sicilian cities for supporting Corinth. * Julius Caesar – He was a
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
general and statesman. A member of the
First Triumvirate The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance among three prominent politicians in the late Roman Republic: Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus. The constitution of the Roman republic had many ve ...
, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a program of social and governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave
citizenship Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reform and support for veterans. * Scipio Africanus – He was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory against
Carthage Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classi ...
in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the best military commanders and strategists of all time, his greatest military achievement was the defeat of Hannibal at the
Battle of Zama The Battle of Zama was fought in 202 BC near Zama, now in Tunisia, and marked the end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio, with crucial support from Numidian leader Masinissa, defeated the Carthaginian a ...
in 202 BC. This victory in Africa earned him the epithet ''Africanus'', literally meaning "the African," but meant to be understood as a conqueror of
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
. Scipio Africanus is mentioned in '' Il Canto degli Italiani'', the national anthem of Italy since 1946. *
Marco Polo Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
– He was a
Venetian Venetian often means from or related to: * Venice, a city in Italy * Veneto, a region of Italy * Republic of Venice (697–1797), a historical nation in that area Venetian and the like may also refer to: * Venetian language, a Romance language s ...
merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in ''
The Travels of Marco Polo ''Book of the Marvels of the World'' ( Italian: , lit. 'The Million', deriving from Polo's nickname "Emilione"), in English commonly called ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from st ...
'' (also known as ''Book of the Marvels of the World '' and ''Il Milione'', c. 1300), a book that described to Europeans the then mysterious culture and inner workings of the Eastern world, including the wealth and great size of the Mongol Empire and China in the Yuan Dynasty, giving their first comprehensive look into China, Persia, India, Japan and other Asian cities and countries. Marco was appointed to serve as Khan's foreign emissary, and he was sent on many
diplomatic mission A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually deno ...
s throughout the empire and Southeast Asia, such as in present-day
Burma Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. As part of this appointment, Marco also travelled extensively inside China, living in the emperor's lands for 17 years and seeing many things that had previously been unknown to Europeans. *
Eleanor of Arborea Eleanor of Arborea or Eleanor De Serra Bas ( Sardinian: Elianora de Arbarée / Elianora De Serra Bas, Italian: Eleonora d'Arborea / Eleonora De Serra Bas; 1347— June 1404) was one of the most powerful and important, and one of the last, judges ...
– She was one of the most powerful and important, and one of the last,
judges A judge is an official who presides over a court. Judge or Judges may also refer to: Roles *Judge, an alternative name for an adjudicator in a competition in theatre, music, sport, etc. *Judge, an alternative name/aviator call sign for a membe ...
of the Judgedom of Arborea in Sardinia, and Sardinia's most famous heroine. She is also known for updating of the
Carta de Logu The Carta de Logu was a legal code of the Judicate of Arborea, written in the Sardinian language and promulgated by the ("Lady Judge") Eleanor of Arborea in 1392. It was in force in Sardinia until it was superseded by the Savoyard code of Ch ...
, promulgated by her father Marianus IV and revisited by her brother Hugh III. * Roger I of Sicily – He was a Norman nobleman who became the first
Count of Sicily The monarchs of Sicily ruled from the establishment of the County of Sicily in 1071 until the "perfect fusion" in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1816. The origins of the Sicilian monarchy lie in the Norman conquest of southern Italy which occ ...
from 1071 to 1101. He was a member of the
House of Hauteville The Hauteville ( it, Altavilla) was a Norman family originally of seigneurial rank from the Cotentin. The Hautevilles rose to prominence through their part in the Norman conquest of southern Italy. By 1130, one of their members, Roger II, was ma ...
, and his descendants in the male line continued to rule Sicily down to 1194. Roger was born in Normandy, and came to southern Italy as a young man in 1057. He participated in several military expeditions against the Emirate of Sicily beginning in 1061. He was invested with part of Sicily and the title of count by his brother, Robert Guiscard,
Duke of Apulia The County of Apulia and Calabria (), later the Duchy of Apulia and Calabria (), was a Norman state founded by William of Hauteville in 1042 in the territories of Gargano, Capitanata, Apulia, Vulture, and most of Campania. It became a duchy wh ...
, in 1071. By 1090, he had conquered the entire island. In 1091, he
conquered Conquest is the act of military subjugation of an enemy by force of arms. Military history provides many examples of conquest: the Roman conquest of Britain, the Mauryan conquest of Afghanistan and of vast areas of the Indian subcontinent, ...
Malta Malta ( , , ), officially the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ), is an island country in the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of an archipelago, between Italy and Libya, and is often considered a part of Southern Europe. It lies ...
. The state he created was merged with the Duchy of Apulia in 1127 and became the Kingdom of Sicily in 1130.. * Giuseppe Garibaldi – He was an Italian general, patriot, revolutionary and republican. He contributed to
Italian unification The unification of Italy ( it, Unità d'Italia ), also known as the ''Risorgimento'' (, ; ), was the 19th-century political and social movement that resulted in the consolidation of different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single ...
and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. He is considered one of the greatest generals of modern times and one of Italy's " fathers of the fatherland", along with
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri (, 10 August 1810 – 6 June 1861), generally known as Cavour ( , ), was an Italian politician, businessman, economist and noble, and a leading figure in the movement tow ...
, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and
Giuseppe Mazzini Giuseppe Mazzini (, , ; 22 June 1805 – 10 March 1872) was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) and spearhead of the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the i ...
. Garibaldi is also known as the "''Hero of the Two Worlds''" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe. Garibaldi became an international figurehead for national independence and republican ideals, and is considered by the twentieth-century historiography and popular culture as Italy's greatest national hero. He was showered with admiration and praise by many intellectuals and political figures, including
Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln ( ; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer, politician, and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation throu ...
,Mack Smith, ed., Denis (1969). ''Garibaldi'' (Great Lives Observed). Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs. pp. 69–70. . William Brown,"Frasi di William Brown (ammiraglio)"
''LeCitazioni''. Retrieved 2 September 2020. "È il più generoso dei pirati che abbia mai incontrato."
Francesco de Sanctis, Victor Hugo,
Alexandre Dumas Alexandre Dumas (, ; ; born Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie (), 24 July 1802 – 5 December 1870), also known as Alexandre Dumas père (where '' '' is French for 'father', to distinguish him from his son Alexandre Dumas fils), was a French writer ...
,
Malwida von Meysenbug Malwida von Meysenbug (28 October 1816 — 23 April 1903) was a German writer, her work including ''Memories of an Idealist'', the first volume of which she published anonymously in 1869. As well, she was a friend of Friedrich Nietzsche and Richa ...
,
George Sand Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin de Francueil (; 1 July 1804 – 8 June 1876), best known by her pen name George Sand (), was a French novelist, memoirist and journalist. One of the most popular writers in Europe in her lifetime, bein ...
,
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian er ...
, Friedrich Engels and
Che Guevara Ernesto Che Guevara (; 14 June 1928The date of birth recorded on /upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Ernesto_Guevara_Acta_de_Nacimiento.jpg his birth certificatewas 14 June 1928, although one tertiary source, (Julia Constenla, quoted ...
.Di Mino, Massimiliano; Di Mino, Pier Paolo (2011). ''Il libretto rosso di Garibaldi''. Rome: Castelvecchi Editore. p. 7. . Historian A. J. P. Taylor called him "the only wholly admirable figure in modern history". In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red shirts that his volunteers, the ''Garibaldini'', wore in lieu of a uniform. * Cesare Battisti – He was an
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional It ...
patriot,
geographer A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" ...
, socialist politician and journalist of Austrian citizenship, who became a prominent Italian irredentist at the start of World War I. He was born the son of a merchant at Trento, a city with a predominantly
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional It ...
-speaking population, which at the time was part of the
Cisleithania Cisleithania, also ''Zisleithanien'' sl, Cislajtanija hu, Ciszlajtánia cs, Předlitavsko sk, Predlitavsko pl, Przedlitawia sh-Cyrl-Latn, Цислајтанија, Cislajtanija ro, Cisleithania uk, Цислейтанія, Tsysleitaniia it, Cislei ...
n crown land of Tyrol in
Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1 ...
. With Italy's entry into World War I following the 1915
London Pact The Treaty of London ( it, Trattato di Londra) or the Pact of London () was a secret agreement concluded on 26 April 1915 by the United Kingdom, France, and Russia on the one part, and Italy on the other, in order to entice the latter to en ...
, though an Austrian citizen, Battisti fought against the
Austro-Hungarian Army The Austro-Hungarian Army (, literally "Ground Forces of the Austro-Hungarians"; , literally "Imperial and Royal Army") was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts: the joint arm ...
in the Alpini Corps at the Italian Front. After the Battle of Asiago, he and his 2nd Lt
Fabio Filzi Fabio Filzi (20 November 1884 – 12 July 1916) was an ethnic-Italian who was born in the Austria-Hungarian Empire but was a irredentist patriot whose firm belief was that the Italian portions of Austria-Hungarian Empire should be united with ...
were captured by the Austrian forces on 10 July 1916 and faced a court-martial in his hometown Trento at the
Castello del Buonconsiglio Buonconsiglio Castle ( it, Castello del Buonconsiglio) is a castle in Trento, northern Italy. History The castle originated from a fortified building that was erected in the 13th century next to the city's walls. This first building was called ...
, charged with high treason. Though Battisti officially enjoyed parliamentary immunity, he was sentenced to death by
strangulation Strangling is compression of the neck that may lead to unconsciousness or death by causing an increasingly hypoxic state in the brain. Fatal strangling typically occurs in cases of violence, accidents, and is one of two main ways that hangin ...
. *
Giovanni Falcone Giovanni Falcone (; 18 May 1939 – 23 May 1992) was an Italian judge and prosecuting magistrate. From his office in the Palace of Justice in Palermo, Sicily, he spent most of his professional life trying to overthrow the power of the Sicilian ...
and Paolo Borsellino – Judges and prosecuting magistrates. From their office in the Palace of Justice in Palermo, Sicily, they spent most of his professional life trying to overthrow the power of the Sicilian Mafia. After a long and distinguished careers, culminating in the Maxi Trial in 1986–1987, Falcone was
assassinated Assassination is the murder of a prominent or important person, such as a head of state, head of government, politician, world leader, member of a royal family or CEO. The murder of a celebrity, activist, or artist, though they may not have a ...
by the Corleonesi Mafia in the
Capaci bombing The Capaci bombing ( it, Strage di Capaci) was a terror attack by the Sicilian Mafia that took place on 23 May 1992 on Highway A29, close to the junction of Capaci, Sicily. It killed magistrate Giovanni Falcone, his wife Francesca Morvillo, ...
, while Borsellino was killed by a car bomb in Via D'Amelio. They were named as heroes of the last 60 years in the 13 November 2006 issue of ''
Time Magazine ''Time'' (stylized in all caps) is an American news magazine based in New York City. For nearly a century, it was published Weekly newspaper, weekly, but starting in March 2020 it transitioned to every other week. It was first published in New ...
''. In recognition of their tireless effort and sacrifice during the anti-mafia trials, they were both awarded the
Gold Medal for Civil Valor The awards for Civil Valor are the honors the Italian Republic grants in order to "reward acts of exceptional courage that clearly manifest civic virtue and to recognize the recipients as worthy of public honor". Individual citizens can receive the ...
and were acknowledged as martyrs of the Catholic Church.


Folk dance

Italian folk dance has been an integral part of
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional It ...
culture for centuries. Dance has been a continuous thread in Italian life from Dante through the Renaissance, the advent of the ''
tarantella () is a group of various southern Italian folk dances originating in the regions of Calabria, Campania and Puglia. It is characterized by a fast upbeat tempo, usually in time (sometimes or ), accompanied by tambourines. It is among the m ...
'' in Southern Italy, and the modern revivals of folk music and dance. One of the earliest attempts to systematically collect folk dances is Gaspare Ungarelli's 1894 work ''Le vecchie danze italiane ancora in uso nella provincia bolognese'' ("Old Italian dances still in use in the province of Bologna") which gives brief descriptions and music for some 30 dances. In 1925,
Benito Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 194 ...
's government set up the
Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro The National Afterwork Club (''Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro'', or OND) was the Italian Fascist leisure and recreational organization for adults. History In April 1925, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini agreed to the Fascist unions’ demands to set ...
(OND) or National Recreational Club as a means of promoting sports and cultural activities and one of its accomplishments was a wide survey of folk music and dance in Italy at that time. The work was published in 1931 as ''Costumi, musica, danze e feste popolari italiane'' ("Italian popular customs, music, dance and festivals"). In September 1945 OND was replaced by a new organization, the ''Ente Nazionale Assistenza Lavoratori'' (ENAL), headquartered in Rome. In partnership with the
International Folk Music Council The International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM) is a scholarly non-governmental organization which focuses on the study, practice, documentation, preservation, and dissemination of traditional music and dance of all countries. Founded in Lo ...
, ENAL sponsored a Congress and Festival in Venice September 7–11, 1949 which included many of the outstanding researchers in Italian folklore as well as folk dance and music groups from various Italian regions. ENAL was dissolved in late 1978 but earlier in October 1970, the Italian folklore groups who had been members of ENAL set up a separate organization, which in 1978 became the ''Federazione Italiana Tradizioni Populari'' (FITP). The FITP publishes a newsletter and a scholarly publication ''Il Folklore D'Italia''. An interest in preserving and fostering folk art, music and dance among Italian Americans and the dedication and leadership of Elba Farabegoli Gurzau led to the formation of the Italian Folk Art Federation of America (IFAFA) in May 1979. The group sponsors an annual conference and has published a newsletter, ''Tradizioni'', since 1980.


Folk music

Italian folk music Italian folk music has a deep and complex history. National unification came quite late to the Italian peninsula, so its many hundreds of separate cultures remained un-homogenized until quite recently. Moreover, Italian folk music reflects Italy ...
has a deep and complex history. National unification came quite late to the Italian peninsula, so its many hundreds of separate cultures remained un-homogenized until quite recently. Moreover, Italian folk music reflects Italy's geographic position at the south of Europe and in the center of the Mediterranean Sea:
Celtic Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to: Language and ethnicity *pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia **Celts (modern) *Celtic languages **Proto-Celtic language *Celtic music *Celtic nations Sports Foo ...
, Slavic,
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
, Greek,
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
and
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
influences are readily apparent in the musical styles of the Italian regions. Italy's rough geography and the historic dominance of small
city states A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
has allowed quite diverse musical styles to coexist in close proximity. The Celtic and Slavic influences on the group and open-voice choral works of the Northern Italy contrast with the Greek, Byzantine, and Arabic influenced strident monody of the Southern Italy. In the
Central Italy Central Italy ( it, Italia centrale or just ) is one of the five official statistical regions of Italy used by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), a first-level NUTS region, and a European Parliament constituency. Regions Central I ...
these influences combine, while indigenous traditions like narrative and ballad singing remain. The music of the island of Sardinia is distinct from that of the rest of Italy, and is best known for the polyphonic chanting of the tenores. The modern understanding of Italian folk music has its roots in the growth of ethnomusicology in the 1940s and 1950s and in the resurgence of regionalism in Italy at the time. The Centro Nazionale di Studi di Musica Popolare (CNSMP), now part of the
Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia The Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia ( en, National Academy of St Cecilia) is one of the oldest musical institutions in the world, founded by the papal bull ''Ratione congruit'', issued by Sixtus V in 1585, which invoked two saints prom ...
, was started in 1948 to study and archive the various musical styles throughout Italy. The Italian
folk revival The American folk music revival began during the 1940s and peaked in popularity in the mid-1960s. Its roots went earlier, and performers like Josh White, Burl Ives, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, Big Bill Broonzy, Billie Holiday, Richard Dyer-Ben ...
was accelerating by 1966, when the Istituto Ernesto de Martino was founded by Gianni Bosio in Milan to document Italian oral culture and traditional music. Today, Italy's folk music is often divided into several spheres of geographic influence, a classification system proposed by
Alan Lomax Alan Lomax (; January 31, 1915 – July 19, 2002) was an American ethnomusicologist, best known for his numerous field recordings of folk music of the 20th century. He was also a musician himself, as well as a folklorist, archivist, writer, sch ...
in 1956 and often repeated since. Lomax, Alan (1956). "Folk Song Style: Notes on a Systematic Approach to the Study of Folk Song." ''Journal of the International Folk Music Council'', VIII, pp. 48–50.


See also

* Italian folk dance *
Italian folk music Italian folk music has a deep and complex history. National unification came quite late to the Italian peninsula, so its many hundreds of separate cultures remained un-homogenized until quite recently. Moreover, Italian folk music reflects Italy ...
*
Traditions of Italy Traditions of Italy are sets of traditions, beliefs, value (ethics), values, and Convention (norm), customs that belongs within the Culture of Italy, culture of Italian people. These traditions have influenced life in Italy for centuries, and ar ...


References


Further reading

* Aprile, R. ''Indice delle fiabe popolari italiane di magia''. vol. I. Firenze: Olschki, 2000. * Calvino, I. '' Fiabe italiane''. Volumes I and II. Torino: Einaudi, 1971. * D'Aronco, G. ''Indice delle fiabe toscane''. Firenze: Olschki, 1953. * Del Monte Tammaro, C. ''Indice delle fiabe abruzzesi''. Firenze: Olschki, 1971. * Lo Nigro, S. ''Racconti popolari siciliani: classificazione e bibliografia''. Firenze: Olschki, 1957. * Orioli, S. ''Repertorio della narrativa popolare romagnola''. Firenze: Olschki, 1984.


External links


Italian Folklore/Legends of Italy

Italian Folk Tales
(en) {{Europe topic, Folklore of