The Indianmeal moth (''Plodia interpunctella''), also spelled Indian meal moth and Indian-meal moth, is a pyraloid

moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...

of the

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

Pyralidae The Pyralidae, commonly called pyralid moths, snout moths or grass moths, are a family of Lepidoptera in the ditrysian superfamily Pyraloidea. In many (particularly older) classifications, the grass moths (Crambidae) are included in the Pyralida ...

. Alternative common names are weevil moth, pantry moth, flour moth or grain moth. The

almond moth The almond moth or tropical warehouse moth (''Cadra cautella'') is a small, stored-product pest. Almond moths infest flour, bran, oats, and other grains, as well as dried fruits. It belongs to the family of snout moths ( Pyralidae), and more sp ...

(''Cadra cautella'') and the raisin moth (''

Cadra figulilella ''Cadra figulilella'', the raisin moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. The raisin moth is known most commonly as a pest that feeds on dried fruits, such as the raisin and date. It covers a range that includes much of the world, primarily situ ...

'') are commonly confused with the Indian-meal moth due to similar food sources and appearance. The species was named for feeding on Indian meal or cornmeal, and does not occur natively in India. It is also not to be confused with the

Mediterranean flour moth The Mediterranean flour moth or mill moth (''Ephestia kuehniella'') is a moth of the family Pyralidae. It is a common pest of cereal grains, especially flour. This moth is found throughout the world, especially in countries with temperate cli ...

(''Ephestia kuehniella''), another common pest of stored grains. ''P. interpunctella''

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...

e (

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sy ...

s) are commonly known as

waxworm Waxworms are the caterpillar larvae of wax moths, which belong to the family Pyralidae (snout moths). Two closely related species are commercially bred – the lesser wax moth (''Achroia grisella'') and the greater wax moth (''Galleria ...

s. It is important to note that they are not the same species as the waxworms often bred as animal feed. Rather, they are a common grain-feeding pest found around the world, consuming

cereals A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in partic ...

s, and similar products. Substantial efforts have been taken in the United States to control the moth's damage to grain crops. The larvae of this species have the ability to bite through plastic and cardboard so even sealed containers may be infested. Once found, the moths are difficult to eradicate. The last larval

instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...

is also able to travel long distances before

pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in thei ...

ting; so a new infestation site may develop far from the last pupation site. In addition to food sources, this species can reproduce and

pupate A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...

on clothing and any source of clothing must be inspected to prevent reinfestation.

Distribution and habitat

''Plodia interpunctella'' is found on every continent in tropical habitats, excluding Antarctica. Within the United States, the moth is most commonly found in

Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and ...

, where it thrives in the tropical habitat. The moth lives in a wide range of conditions, making it a persistent pest. It is often found at food storage facilities worldwide, specifically in grain bins or grain storage buildings.

Taxonomy and etymology

The Indian-meal moth is the only known living

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriat ...

of the

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

''Plodia''. It is closely related to the genera ''

Cadra ''Cadra'' is a genus of small moths belonging to the family Pyralidae. The genus ''Ephestia'' is closely related to ''Cadra'' and might be its senior synonym. Several of these moths are variously assigned to one or the other genus, in particul ...

'' and ''

Ephestia ''Ephestia'' is a genus of small moths belonging to the family Pyralidae. Some species are significant pests of dry plant produce, such as seeds and cereals. Best known among these are probably the cacao moth (''E. elutella'') and the Medit ...

,'' which include other pest species like '' E. kuehniella,'' also known as the "flour moth".References in Savela, Markku (2009): Markku Savela's ''Lepidoptera and Some Other Life Forms'' �
''Plodia''
Version of 9 April 2010. Retrieved 10 April 2010. The species has been described under a number of

junior synonym The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently. * In botanical nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that applies to a taxon that (now) goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linn ...

s, which may occasionally still be found in non-

entomological Entomology () is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arach ...

sources. * ''Ephestia glycinivora'' Matsumura, 1917 * ''Ephestia glycinivorella'' Matsumura, 1932 (unjustified emendation) * ''Plodia castaneella'' (Reutti, 1898) * ''Plodia glycinivora'' (Matsumura, 1917) * ''Plodia interpunctalis'' (Hübner, 1825) * ''Plodia latercula'' (Hampson, 1901) * ''Plodia zeae'' (Fitch, 1856) * ''Tinea castaneella'' Reutti, 1898 * ''Tinea interpunctalis'' Hübner, 1825 * ''Tinea interpunctella'' Hübner, 813/small> * ''Tinea zeae'' Fitch, 1856 * ''Unadilla latercula'' Hampson, 1901 The common name, "Indian-meal moth", for this species was coined by

Asa Fitch Asa Fitch (February 24, 1809 – April 8, 1879) was a natural historian and entomologist from Salem, New York. His early studies were of both natural history and medicine, which he studied at the newly formed Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, ...

, an entomologist employed by the

state of New York New York, officially the State of New York, is a state in the Northeastern United States. It is often called New York State to distinguish it from its largest city, New York City. With a total area of , New York is the 27th-largest U.S. state ...

in the 19th century. In a report published in 1856, Fitch discussed the species, noting that the larvae had been observed to infest stores of

cornmeal Cornmeal is a meal (coarse flour) or a cell membrane ground from dried corn. It is a common staple food, and is ground to coarse, medium, and fine consistencies, but not as fine as wheat flour can be.Herbst, Sharon, ''Food Lover's Companion'', ...

, which at the time was referred to as "Indian meal".Fitch, Asa (1856
''First and Second Report on the Noxious, Beneficial and other Insects of the State of New York''
C. Van Benthuysen, Albany, USA.

Description

Adults are in length with wingspans. The

distal Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position pro ...

two thirds of their forewings are generally reddish brown in color with a copper luster. They can also be bronze or dark gray. The more

proximal Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position ...

parts of the wings are yellow-gray or white-gray, with a dark band at the intersection between the proximal and distal regions. The hindwings, in general, are uniformly gray. The eggs of the Indian-meal moth are white, ovate, and very small. It is difficult to see them with the naked eye. Newly hatched

e are equally difficult to see. They are mostly off-white in color, have brown heads, and develop through five to seven larval

s. When these larvae mature, they measure about long. Larvae also have three sets of legs near the head and five sets of

proleg A proleg is a small, fleshy, stub structure found on the ventral surface of the abdomen of most larval forms of insects of the order Lepidoptera, though they can also be found on other larval insects such as sawflies and a few other types of in ...

s protruding from the abdomen. The legs help the larvae move over long distances in order to find pupation sites.

Food resources

Indian-meal moths feed on plants, grains, and other human food products.

Plant-based foods

Moths feed on many plant-based foods including dry pet food (plant based), birdseed, cereal, soup mixes, bread, pasta, rice, flour, nairn's oatcakes, spices, dried fruits and nuts. There is strong evidence that the northern

Manitoba Manitoba ( ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population o ...

wheat supports the development of the moth. Other optimal diets include sultanas, American yellow corn and almonds. Groundnuts and maize meal, on the other hand, result in a longer development time for the moths.

Non-plant foods

Indian-meal moths are also known to cannibalize larvae but this often leads to viral granulosis infections spreading through an Indian-meal moth population. Healthy larvae are picked more often than unhealthy larvae for cannibalism. Typically, cannibals do not eat closely related individuals which might share genes with them, but when given the choice between siblings and unrelated individuals, caterpillars tend to cannibalize their siblings.

Foraging flights

Though Indian-meal moths generally do not migrate over long distances, they do engage in long-distance foraging flights. These flights take place during the twilight hours during which blue light (400–475 nm) rather than UV light (10–400 nm) is dominant and attracts the moths. Blue light's role in the Indian-meal moth foraging behavior has recently been harnessed as a form of pest control since it is attractive to the moth.

Life history

Eggs

Usually the life cycle of an Indian-meal moth colony starts in a location where grain is present. The temperature within a grain bin must exceed . The eggs of the moth are grayish white and have a length between . Eggs can be laid directly on the food source singly or in groups of between 12 and 30. A mature female may lay between 100 and 300 eggs at a time.

Larvae

Larvae begin to hatch in approximately two to fourteen days. The larvae have between five and seven

s. Newly hatched larvae feed on grain while more mature larvae feed on grain germ. The larvae are an off-white color, but can be pink, brown, or greenish. They are about 12 mm long and have prolegs for movement. Fully-grown larvae are able to spin webs and leave silk threads in their path of travel. Mature larvae that make silk also make threaded cocoons.

Adults

The pupae are often seen on grain surfaces and on the walls of grain bins. The adults emerge in four to ten days. They then mate and the cycle begins again. The entire

life cycle Life cycle, life-cycle, or lifecycle may refer to: Science and academia *Biological life cycle, the sequence of life stages that an organism undergoes from birth to reproduction ending with the production of the offspring * Life-cycle hypothesis ...

of this species ranges between 30 and 300 days. A typical life cycle is 50 days. Under optimal conditions a life cycle can be as short as 28 days but cooler winter months prohibit this. Seven to nine generations of moths can live in a year.Lyon, William F. (2006): Ohio State University Insect and Pest Fact Sheets �
HYG-2089-97: Indianmeal Moth
Version of 31 August 2006.

Diapause

Diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press I ...

is defined as a delay in animal development due to certain external factors and can end once the adverse environmental conditions wear off. The duration of diapause can vary in Indian-meal moths. Diapause is especially prevalent late in the breeding season. During the egg stage, if the temperature of the moth's environment exceeds , it can cause a delay in hatching. In the moth's early larval stage, temperatures of below can cause a similar diapause. Different strains of ''P. interpunctella'' have differing tendencies to enter diapause. Image:Mating_plodia_big.jpg, Mating adults Image:Plodia.interpunctella.eggs.jpg, Freshly laid eggs Image:Plodia interpunctella lrv 79.jpg, Larva on

sprinkles Sprinkles are very small pieces of confectionery used as an often colourful decoration or to add texture to desserts such as brownies, cupcakes, doughnuts or ice cream. The tiny candies are produced in a variety of colors and are generally use ...

Image:Plodia_interpunctella_pup_25.jpg, Empty pupal case

Enemies

Predators

* Nocturnal

insectivore A robber fly eating a hoverfly An insectivore is a carnivorous animal or plant that eats insects. An alternative term is entomophage, which can also refer to the human practice of eating insects. The first vertebrate insectivores were ...

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...

s, bats, and

owl Owls are birds from the order Strigiformes (), which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers a ...

s *

Lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia altho ...

s (Lacertilia) *

Bear Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the No ...

s (''Ursidae'') *

Cat The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...

s (''Felis catus'') * Dogs (''Canis familiaris'') *

Rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are n ...

s (Rodentia) *

Spider Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species ...

s (Arachnida) * Other cannibalistic Indian-meal moths

Parasites

* ''

Habrobracon hebetor ''Habrobracon hebetor'' is a minute wasp of the family Braconidae that is an ectoparasitoid of several species of moth caterpillars. Well known hosts include the larval stage of ''Plodia interpunctella'', the Indianmeal moth, the late larval sta ...

'' is a parasitoid wasp that is commonly used in biological control. A biological control involves the use of other organisms to control pests. The gut

enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...

s released by this parasite into the Indian-meal moth larvae denature

blood proteins Blood-proteins, also termed plasma proteins, are proteins present in blood plasma. They serve many different functions, including transport of lipids, hormones, vitamins and minerals in activity and functioning of the immune system. Other bl ...

and digest it. This, along with the larvae eating the moth, leads to its death.

Diseases

Baculovirus ''Baculoviridae'' is a family of viruses. Arthropods, among the most studied being Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, serve as natural hosts. Currently, 85 species are placed in this family, assigned to four genera. Baculoviruses are known ...

es are double-stranded DNA viruses commonly used as biological control agents for the Indian-meal moth and are considered parasites. They come from a family of viruses that are limited to insects as hosts. Baculovirus isolates have been often isolated from other

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described speci ...

. At sub-lethal dosages, baculoviruses decrease reproductive capacity in terms of egg viability and production.

Immunity

Indian-meal moths are developing a resistance to many kinds of

biological agent A biological agent (also called bio-agent, biological threat agent, biological warfare agent, biological weapon, or bioweapon) is a bacterium, virus, protozoan, parasite, fungus, or toxin that can be used purposefully as a weapon in bioterrori ...

s, such as the granulosis virus. Use of pest control agents can cause resistance to these agents to be selected for in populations of Indian-meal moths. In populations exposed to the granulosis virus, it was found that the moths were 96 times more resistant to the virus. This led to the prohibition of many such biological agents. Regulations prevent the use of many pesticides near food sources so these pests are highly suitable for control with natural predators.

Mating

Male-male interactions

Sperm competition

Females mate multiple times, so sperm competition could be an important aspect of male-male competition for being reproductively successful. Males have a limited number of sperm and allocate it depending on various factors. Male Indian-meal moths ejaculate a greater amount of sperm to females that have mated multiple times previously. This is to ensure a greater chance of success in sperm competition in the females' storage organs. Males also ejaculate more sperm when mating with a younger female.

Food and pupation site competition

The most common type of competition in Indian-meal moths is due to a lack of food. This competition can change the timing of male and female emergence, reducing the chance of early males finding females to mate with, which could encourage emigration. This is considered a form of male-male competition because males that emerge at an appropriate time are more likely to be reproductively successful with the surrounding females. Males are also involved in finding pupation sites. If the larvae do not find pupation sites in the food layer, they may wander long distances to find one. This competition to find a pupation site affects males more than it does females, it indirectly impacts females as well because it results in a delayed population of males to mate with.

Female-male interactions

Female pheromones

In the Indian-meal moth, mating occurs a few days after the adult moth emerges from the silk cocoon. Mating rituals are largely limited to

pheromone A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...

s release by the female. There are four identified (via

mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that is used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. The results are presented as a '' mass spectrum'', a plot of intensity as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. Mass spectrometry is u ...

techniques) primary pheromones in the female pheromone blend: (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate, (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienal, (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienol, and (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate. These pheromones are attractants to male moths. Removing any one component of the blend reduces the activity of the pheromone and the number of males attracted. Other components of the pheromone blend are also known but their functions are unclear. It has been suggested the reason for having so many components to the pheromone is that it ensures species specificity.

=Male pheromones

= Male moths also release pheromones. After approaching the female from the back, the male releases a pheromone from wing glands located at the base of each forewing. These pheromones induce the female to remain stationary in the acceptance posture (raised abdomen between wings) which facilitates copulation.

Copulation and multiple mating

Indian-meal moths are known to mate multiple times. For males, it is vital to ensure paternity after copulation. To ensure this trait, males who mate with a female first (before any other males) will insert a large package of

spermatophore A spermatophore or sperm ampulla is a capsule or mass containing spermatozoa created by males of various animal species, especially salamanders and arthropods, and transferred in entirety to the female's ovipore during reproduction. Spermatophore ...

, accessory gland fluids, and nutrients into the bursa copulatrix of the female during copulation. Other donations after the first mating are smaller in size. Even so, there is no change in postcopulatory behavior in females after this large donation (with respect to pheromone production and calling behavior).

Changes in fecundity

It has been observed in many insects that vital resources are tracked using odor plumes. For the Indian-meal moth these odors have other effects as well. The Indian-meal moth's fecundity and fertility was found to be enhanced in the presence of the odor of vital nutrients. This effect is thought to be genetic since it is not related to parental generations or previous experiences in the lifetime of the moth. Females also show a strong preference towards laying their eggs near the site of the odor. It was observed that without antennae, this effect is lost, suggesting that there are olfactory receptors in the antennae.

Interspecific courting

The Indian-meal moth often takes part in interspecific courtship especially with the

(''Cadra cautella''). Successful mating between the species does not happen due to multiple isolation mechanisms. The main mechanism that has been identified is the male sex pheromone. This pheromone is a strong species recognition signal. It allows the almond moth to differentiate between members of its own species and members of the Indian-meal moth species. There are also mechanical barriers to insemination that render the species incompatible. Their courtship behaviors are also relatively incompatible. Thus, copulation rarely occurs. Even when courtship does continue to a later stage, the female of the other species rejects the male due to the wrong pheromone being released at the wrong time from scent scales. Even with these fail safes, some male almond moths are still excited by Indian-meal moth females. They may be able to successfully copulate, but insemination is not possible.

Pest status and pest control

Status

Indian-meal moth larvae can infest a wide range of dry foodstuffs of

vegetable Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the edible flower, flowers, ...

origin, such as

cereal A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...

bread Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made f ...

pasta Pasta (, ; ) is a type of food typically made from an unleavened dough of wheat flour mixed with water or eggs, and formed into sheets or other shapes, then cooked by boiling or baking. Rice flour, or legumes such as beans or lentils, ...

rice Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and '' Porteresia'', both wild and domesticat ...

couscous Couscous ( '; ber, ⵙⴽⵙⵓ, translit=Seksu) – sometimes called kusksi or kseksu – is a Maghrebi dish of small steamed granules of rolled durum wheat semolina that is often served with a stew spooned on top. Pearl millet, sorghum, ...

flour Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cul ...

spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices a ...

dried fruit Dried fruit is fruit from which the majority of the original water content has been removed either naturally, through sun drying, or through the use of specialized dryers or dehydrators. Dried fruit has a long tradition of use dating back to th ...

s, and nuts. More unusual recorded foods include

crushed red pepper Crushed red pepper or red pepper flakes is a condiment or spice consisting of dried and crushed (as opposed to ground) red chili peppers. This condiment is most often produced from cayenne-type peppers, although commercial producers may use a var ...

chocolate Chocolate is a food made from roasted and ground cacao seed kernels that is available as a liquid, solid, or paste, either on its own or as a flavoring agent in other foods. Cacao has been consumed in some form since at least the Olmec ci ...

and

cocoa bean The cocoa bean (technically cocoa seed) or simply cocoa (), also called the cacao bean (technically cacao seed) or cacao (), is the dried and fully Fermentation, fermented seed of ''Theobroma cacao'', from which cocoa solids (a mixture of non ...

coffee substitute Coffee substitutes are non- coffee products, usually without caffeine, that are used to imitate coffee. Coffee substitutes can be used for medical, economic and religious reasons, or simply because coffee is not readily available. Roasted grain ...

cookie A cookie is a baked or cooked snack or dessert that is typically small, flat and sweet. It usually contains flour, sugar, egg, and some type of oil, fat, or butter. It may include other ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, nu ...

s, dried mangelwurzel, and even the

toxic Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a sub ...

seeds of

jimsonweed ''Datura stramonium'', known by the common names thorn apple, jimsonweed (jimson weed), devil's snare, or devil's trumpet, is a poisonous flowering plant of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It is a species belonging to the ''Datura'' genus a ...

(''Datura stramonium''). They have also been known to infest commercial

pet food Pet food is animal feed intended for consumption by pets. Typically sold in pet stores and supermarkets, it is usually specific to the type of animal, such as dog food or cat food. Most meat used for animals is a byproduct of the human food ind ...

, such as cracked corn used for

bird feed Bird food or bird seed is food (often varieties of seeds, nuts, and/or dried fruits) intended for consumption by wild and domestic birds. While most bird food is fed to commercial fowl (such as chicken or turkey), bird food is also used to fe ...

. They often leave webbing in the food they infest.Fasulo, Thomas R. & Knox, Marie A. (2009): University of Florida Featured Creatures �
Indianmeal moth, ''Plodia interpunctella'' Hübner
Version of December 2009.Grabe, Albert (1942): Eigenartige Geschmacksrichtungen bei Kleinschmetterlingsraupen Strange tastes among micromoth caterpillars" ''Zeitschrift des Wiener Entomologen-Vereins'' 27: 105–109 n Germanbr>PDF fulltext
/ref>

Control

After larvae or moths have been found, it is important to throw out all food sources not in very tightly sealed containers. Moth larvae can chew through plastic bags and thin cardboard, so even unopened packages may become infested. They are also notoriously difficult to get rid of, and can crawl on ceilings and spin cocoons in rooms other than where they hatched. Last

larvae are able to travel significant distances before they

te. When seeking the source of an infestation, the search thus cannot be limited to the immediate area where pupae are discovered. Pantry moths can use clothing (remaining hidden) to reproduce and pupate, so it is important to inspect any source of clothing material. None of the stages of the organism (eggs, larvae, adults) are temperature tolerant and can be killed by a week of freezing or by brief heating in a microwave or conventional oven when such treatment is practical. Scrubbing infested areas with a mixture of soap and water or vinegar is also effective. Nontoxic traps are available to monitor outbreaks. One type of trap is a triangular box with a

lure and sticky walls inside. These traps are known as

pheromone trap A pheromone trap is a type of insect trap that uses pheromones to lure insects. Sex pheromones and aggregating pheromones are the most common types used. A pheromone-impregnated lure, as the red rubber septa in the picture, is encased in a convent ...

s. Male moths are attracted by the female pheromone (the lure) and stick against the sticky walls inside the box.Klass, Carolyn (2009
Pesticide Management Education Program – Indian Meal Moth
Version of February 2009. Moths often do not even need a lure, common glue traps sometimes work well to reduce the number of adults. The efficiency of such traps is highly doubtful as they only capture males, and usually only a fraction of them, while adult females, eggs and larvae are unaffected, enabling a possible reinfestation. Moths can be deterred from an area by using nontoxic pantry moth spray. It is most effective to treat the infestation by eliminating the source and any affected food items, interrupting their mating processes, and repelling them from the areas where dried food and grains are kept. It is recommended to first eliminate the source of infestation followed by larvae, eggs, and eventually moths.Cranshaw, Whitney (2011)

Colorado State University Extension. Version 4/03. Reviewed 3/08. The caterpillars are parasitized by ''

'', a

braconid wasp The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed. One analysis ...

which is a potential

biological control agent Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...

.Phillips, Tom (1995
Biological Control of Stored-Product Pests
. ''Midwest Biological Control News Online'' 2(10). Additionally, blue to violet light can be very effective in drawing moths out, which suggests that the deployment of violet light could become another pest control tactic for these moths.

References

External links

Indian Meal Moth Fact Sheet
featuring information on habits, habitat and pictures

Home and Garden: Indianmeal Moth

– Pantry Pests {{Taxonbar, from=Q779383 Phycitini Household pest insects Storage pests Moths described in 1813 Moths of Japan Moths of Europe Moths of Réunion Moths of New Zealand Moths of Asia Moths of Iceland Moths of Africa