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The Humboldtian model of higher education (German: ''Humboldtsches Bildungsideal'') or just Humboldt's ideal is a concept of academic education that emerged in the early 19th century whose core idea is a

holistic Holism is the interdisciplinary idea that systems possess properties as wholes apart from the properties of their component parts. Julian Tudor Hart (2010''The Political Economy of Health Care''pp.106, 258 The aphorism "The whole is greater than t ...

combination In mathematics, a combination is a selection of items from a set that has distinct members, such that the order of selection does not matter (unlike permutations). For example, given three fruits, say an apple, an orange and a pear, there are ...

of research and studies. Sometimes called simply the ''Humboldtian model'', it integrates the arts and sciences with research to achieve both comprehensive general learning and cultural knowledge. Several elements of the Humboldtian model heavily influenced the concept of the

research university A research university or a research-intensive university is a university that is committed to research as a central part of its mission. They are "the key sites of Knowledge production modes, knowledge production", along with "intergenerational ...

. The Humboldtian model goes back to

Wilhelm von Humboldt Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt (22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) was a German philosopher, linguist, government functionary, diplomat, and founder of the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1949, the university was named aft ...

, who in the time of the

Prussian reforms The Prussian Reform Movement was a series of constitutional, administrative, social, and economic reforms early in 19th-century Prussia. They are sometimes known as the Stein–Hardenberg Reforms, for Karl Freiherr vom Stein and Karl August v ...

relied on a growing, educated

middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...

to promote his conception of general education. Humboldt's educational model went beyond vocational training in Germany. In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote: The philosopher and former State Minister of Culture of the Federal Republic of Germany,

Julian Nida-Rümelin Julian Nida-Rümelin (born 28 November 1954) is a German philosopher and public intellectual. He served as State Minister for Culture of the Federal Republic of Germany under Chancellor Schröder. He was professor of philosophy and political ...

, has criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and the contemporary European education policy – which in his view conceives education narrowly as preparation for the labor market – and argues that a choice must be made between McKinsey's and Humboldt's ideals. The concept of holistic academic education was an idea of

, a

Prussian Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, the House of Hohenzoll ...

philosopher Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

, government functionary and

diplomat A diplomat (from ; romanization, romanized ''diploma'') is a person appointed by a state (polity), state, International organization, intergovernmental, or Non-governmental organization, nongovernmental institution to conduct diplomacy with one ...

. As a privy councilor in the Interior Ministry, he reformed the Prussian education system after

humanist Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humanism" ha ...

principles. He founded the University of Berlin (now

Humboldt University of Berlin The Humboldt University of Berlin (, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin, Germany. The university was established by Frederick William III on the initiative of Wilhelm von Humbol ...

), appointing distinguished scholars to both teach and conduct research there. Several scholars have labeled him the most influential education official in German history. Humboldt sought to create an educational system based on unbiased knowledge and analysis, combining research and teaching, while allowing students to choose their own course of study. The University of Berlin was later named after him and his brother, the naturalist

Alexander von Humboldt Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt (14 September 1769 – 6 May 1859) was a German polymath, geographer, natural history, naturalist, List of explorers, explorer, and proponent of Romanticism, Romantic philosophy and Romanticism ...

Background

Humboldt's model was based on two ideas of the

Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...

: the

individual An individual is one that exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of living as an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) as a person unique from other people and possessing one's own needs or g ...

and the

world citizen Global citizenship is a form of transnationality, specifically the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader global class of "humanity". This do ...

. Humboldt believed that the university (and education in general, as in the

Prussian education system The Prussian education system was established in Prussia as a result of educational reforms in the late 18th and early 19th century, and has had widespread influence since. The Prussian education system was introduced as a basic concept in the l ...

) should enable students to become autonomous individuals and world citizens by developing their own powers of reasoning in an environment of

academic freedom Academic freedom is the right of a teacher to instruct and the right of a student to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. It may also include the right of academics to engage in social and political criticism. Academic ...

. Humboldt envisaged an ideal of ''Bildung'', education in a broad sense, which aimed not merely to provide professional skills through schooling along a fixed path but rather to allow students to build individual character by choosing their own way. Humboldt had studied the Greek classics since his youth, and was himself an epitome of Eliza Marian Butler's thesis about the important role of Ancient Greek literature and art in 19th-century German thinking. Humboldt believed that study of the Hellenic past would help the German national consciousness, reconciling it with modernity but distinguishing it from French culture, which he saw as rooted in the Roman tradition. The vehicle for this task was to be the university.Held, Dirk t.D., PhD, Connecticut College, USA, "Hellenism, Nationalism, and the Ideology of Research in Humboldt's University", in ''Transformation and Continuity in the History of Universities'', International Commission for the History of Universities (CIHU) Oslo, 10–11 Aug. 2000 The cultural and historical background of the Humboldtian model answered the demands of the

Bildungsbürgertum ''Bildungsbürgertum'' (German: �bɪldʊŋsˌbʏʁɡɐtuːm "cultured / educated middle class") was a social class that emerged in mid-18th-century Germany as the educated social stratum of the bourgeoisie. It was a cultural elite that had rec ...

or educated middle class for greater

general knowledge General knowledge is information that has been accumulated over time through various media and sources. It excludes specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single medium. General know ...

(''Allgemeinbildung''). The Bildungsbürgertum led the

of the early 19th century and managed to generate a

knowledge society A knowledge society generates, shares, and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform info ...

''ante litteram''. Humboldt believed that teaching should be informed by current research, and that research should be unbiased and independent from ideological, economic, political or religious influences. The Humboldtian model strives for unconditional

in the intellectual investigation of the world, both for teachers and for students. Study should be guided by humanistic ideals and free thought, and knowledge should be formed on the basis of

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...

reason Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing valid conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, religion, scien ...

, and

empiricism In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological view which holds that true knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience and empirical evidence. It is one of several competing views within epistemology, along ...

rather than

authority Authority is commonly understood as the legitimate power of a person or group of other people. In a civil state, ''authority'' may be practiced by legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government,''The New Fontana Dictionary of M ...

tradition A tradition is a system of beliefs or behaviors (folk custom) passed down within a group of people or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common e ...

, or

dogma Dogma, in its broadest sense, is any belief held definitively and without the possibility of reform. It may be in the form of an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, or Islam ...

. In line with the basic concept of Wissenschaft, Humboldt regarded philosophy as the link between the different academic disciplines, which include both humanities and natural sciences.Bildung in Zeiten von Bologna?: Hochschulbildung aus der Sicht Studierender, Jennifer Ch. Müller Springer-Verlag, 28.06.2011, p. 41 Humboldt encouraged the University of Berlin to operate according to scientific, as opposed to market-driven, principles such as curiosity, freedom of research, and internal objectives. Nevertheless, Humboldt was a political conservative (in Prussian terms) and saw the state as the major player in educational matters. In 1920, George Peabody Gooch claimed that Humboldt's idea of the state could only be realized in a "community of Humboldts".

Principles

''Humboldt's educational ideal'' developed around two central concepts of public education: The concept of the autonomous individual and the concept of

world citizenship The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plu ...

. The university should be a place where autonomous individuals and

World Citizen Global citizenship is a form of transnationality, specifically the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader global class of "humanity". This do ...

are produced at or more specifically, produce themselves. * An autonomous individual is to be an individual who attains self-determination and responsibility through his use of reason. * "The '' Weltbürgertum'' is the collective bond, which connects autonomous individuals, irrespective of their social and cultural socialization: Humboldt says: 'To transform the world as much as possible into one's own person is, in the higher sense of the word, living'. The endeavor shall aim at working through the world comprehensively, and thereby unfold as a subject. To become a citizen of the world means, to deal with the big questions of humanity: to seek peace, justice, and care about the exchange of cultures, other gender relationships or another relationship to nature." University education should not be job-focused, but educational training that is independent of economic interests.

Academic freedom Academic freedom is the right of a teacher to instruct and the right of a student to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. It may also include the right of academics to engage in social and political criticism. Academic ...

describes independence of the university from outside governmental and economic constraints. The university is to evade government influence. Humboldt demands that the scientific institution of higher education should lose itself "from all forms within the state". Therefore, his concept of university planned, for example, that the University of Berlin should have its own goods in order to finance itself and thereby secure its economic independence. Academic freedom also demands, next to independence of the university from outside governmental and economic constraints, the independence from within; i.e. free choice of study and free organization of studies. The University should therefore be a place of permanent public exchange between all involved in the scientific process. The integration of their knowledge shall be pursued with the help of philosophy. Philosophy is supposed to represent a kind of basic science, which allows members of different scientific disciplines to bring an exchange of their discovery and to link them together. ''Humboldt's educational ideal'' formed German University History decisively for a long period, albeit it was never realized practically in its entirety or cannot be realized. Great intellectual achievements of German science is linked to it.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a 19th-century German idealist. His influence extends across a wide range of topics from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political philosophy and t ...

Karl Marx Karl Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political theorist, economist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. He is best-known for the 1848 pamphlet '' The Communist Manifesto'' (written with Friedrich Engels) ...

Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philology, classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche bec ...

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( ; ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies seen as originating fro ...

Theodor W. Adorno Theodor W. Adorno ( ; ; born Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund; 11 September 1903 – 6 August 1969) was a German philosopher, musicologist, and social theorist. He was a leading member of the Frankfurt School of critical theory, whose work has com ...

and

Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics. His mass–energy equivalence f ...

confessed themselves to it.

University concept

The

University of Berlin The Humboldt University of Berlin (, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin, Germany. The university was established by Frederick William III on the initiative of Wilhelm von Humbol ...

, founded in 1810 under the influence of Wilhelm von Humboldt and renamed the

after

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

, is traditionally seen as the model institution of the 19th century. In fact, the German system emerged from innovations both before and after 1810. Among other scholars,

Friedrich Schleiermacher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (; ; 21 November 1768 – 12 February 1834) was a German Reformed Church, Reformed theology, theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar known for his attempt to reconcile the criticisms of the Age o ...

Friedrich Carl von Savigny Friedrich Carl von Savigny (21 February 1779 – 25 October 1861) was a German jurist and historian. Early life and education Savigny was born at Frankfurt am Main, of a family recorded in the history of Lorraine, deriving its name from the cast ...

Johann Gottlieb Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Ka ...

and

Barthold Georg Niebuhr Barthold Georg Niebuhr (27 August 1776 – 2 January 1831) was a Danish–German statesman, banker, and historian who became Germany's leading historian of Ancient Rome and a founding father of modern scholarly historiography. By 1810 Niebuhr wa ...

were appointed by Humboldt. ''Niemals wieder hatte ein deutscher Unterrichtsminister eine stolzere Berufungsliste vorzuweisen'' (Never again did any German Minister of Education have such a proud list of appointments to show).Peter Berglar: Wilhelm von Humboldt. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1970, ., p.56The Western Time of Ancient History: Historiographical Encounters with the Greek and Roman Pasts Alexandra Lianeri Cambridge University Press, 31.03.2011, p. 121 The university's features included a unity in teaching and research, the pursuit of higher learning in the philosophy faculty, freedom of study for students (''Lernfreiheit'', contrasted with the prescriptive curricula of the French system) and corporate autonomy for universities despite state funding. In addition to Humboldt, the group of reformers in Prussia included philosophers such as

Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kan ...

and

Schleiermacher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (; ; 21 November 1768 – 12 February 1834) was a German Reformed theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar known for his attempt to reconcile the criticisms of the Enlightenment with traditional ...

, and Berlin University was a focus of national cultural revival.Compare Anderson 2004 Humboldt was aware of other German philosophers' educational concepts, such as

Kant Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, et ...

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a 19th-century German idealism, German idealist. His influence extends across a wide range of topics from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political phi ...

and

was an important influence on the Berlin university.

Impact

These principles, in particular the idea of the research-based university, rapidly made an impact both in Germany and abroad. The Humboldtian university concept profoundly influenced higher education throughout central, eastern, and northern Europe. It was in competition with the post-Revolutionary French concept of the ''

grandes écoles Grandes may refer to: *Agustín Muñoz Grandes, Spanish general and politician * Banksia ser. Grandes, a series of plant species native to Australia * Grandes y San Martín, a municipality located in the province of Ávila, Castile and León, Spain ...

''. The French system lacked the freedom of German universities and instead imposed severe discipline and control over curriculum, awarding of degrees, conformity of views, and personal habits, instituting, for example, a ban on beards in 1852. Universities built on the Humboldtian model have provided students with the ability to address recalcitrant problems, leading to major scientific breakthroughs with important economic effects.Hautamäki A. & Ståhle P. (2012): ''Ristiriitainen tiedepolitiikkamme, Suuntana innovaatiot vai sivistys?'' he contradictory science policy. Towards innovation or civilization? Helsinki: Gaudeamus. The book also contains contributions by Ilkka Arminen, Riitta Hari, Sanna Lauslahti, Tarmo Lemola, Markku Mattila, Arto Mustajoki, Kaisa Oksannen and Saara Taalas.Geiger R. L. (2004). ''Knowledge and Money, Research Universities and the Paradox of the Marketplace''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. American universities, starting with

Johns Hopkins University The Johns Hopkins University (often abbreviated as Johns Hopkins, Hopkins, or JHU) is a private university, private research university in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Founded in 1876 based on the European research institution model, J ...

, were early to adopt several of the German educational and scientific principles, which during the 20th century were globally recognized as valuable.Berman E.P. (2012). ''Creating the Market University, How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. One flaw with the Humboldtian model is that unlike English universities, German universities traditionally did not provide housing for their students. Following in the footsteps of the great German universities, the

University of California The University of California (UC) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university, research university system in the U.S. state of California. Headquartered in Oakland, California, Oakland, the system is co ...

adhered to that rule for over 80 years after its 1868 founding. After

Clark Kerr Clark Kerr (May 17, 1911 – December 1, 2003) was an American economist and academic administrator. He was the first chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, and twelfth president of the University of California. Early life and ...

became the first chancellor of

UC Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California), is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California, United States. Founded in 1868 and named after the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkele ...

in 1952, he shifted UC Berkeley from the German model to the English model in which universities assume responsibility for providing and operating student housing. In 1921, German students first began to form local private self-help organizations called Studentenwerke, spanning multiple universities, to construct the residence halls and cafeterias which their universities had failed to provide them. From 1969 to 1975, these organizations were transitioned from private non-profits to state-run non-profits.

20th century

In the 1960s, the Humboldtian model of the university attracted renewed interest and was discussed internationally. The German sociologist and philosopher

Jürgen Habermas Jürgen Habermas ( , ; ; born 18 June 1929) is a German philosopher and social theorist in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. His work addresses communicative rationality and the public sphere. Associated with the Frankfurt S ...

actively promoted Humboldt's ideas. In the 1970s, breakthrough discoveries in

biotechnology Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and Engineering Science, engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services. Specialists ...

and patent legislation favoring market-oriented research such as the

Bayh–Dole Act The Bayh–Dole Act or Patent and Trademark Law Amendments Act (Public law, Pub. L. 96-517, December 12, 1980) is U.S. legislation permitting ownership by contractors of inventions arising from Research funding#Government-funded research, federa ...

in the US allowed for the creation of research partnerships between universities and industry, with the objective of rapidly bringing innovations to market. (The earliest such partnerships in the US, such as

Stanford Research Park Stanford Research Park (SRP) is a technology park established in 1951 as a joint initiative between Stanford University and the Palo Alto, California, City of Palo Alto. It was the world's first university research park. It has more than 150 com ...

, date back to the postwar period.) A similar development has taken place in all industrial countries, based on proposals of the

OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; , OCDE) is an international organization, intergovernmental organization with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and international trade, wor ...

. This innovation of the "market university" as an economic engine, which first emerged in the US, diverges from Humboldt's principles. In a 2012 study, Ståhle and Hautamäki doubted the long-term sustainability of what they termed a "contradictory science policy", and argued for a return to a neo-Humboldtian approach to the university that would aim less for "innovation than for civilization" and reinstate the basic Humboldtian principles of academic freedom and autonomy for educational institutions, the pursuit of knowledge as a basis for both civilization and education (German ''

Bildung (, "education", "formation", etc.) refers to the German tradition of self-cultivation (as related to the German for: creation, image, shape), wherein philosophy and education are linked in a manner that refers to a process of both personal an ...

''), and unity in teaching and research. The implications of the Humboldtian approach and of the conflict between market-driven and idealistic approaches to higher education have led to ironic results in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Though elite private universities in the US do charge high

tuition fee Tuition payments, usually known as tuition in American English and as tuition fees in Commonwealth English, are fees charged by education institutions for instruction or other services. Besides public spending (by governments and other public bo ...

s, both universities and their students also benefit from charitable donations as well as from government support. This combination of resources results in lavish funding that far exceeds the budgets of German universities, which are state-funded and mostly tuition-free.

Current debate

While during Humboldt's time universities mainly conducted state-organized academic research, there are now in Germany's

tertiary education Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools ...

new forms of higher education, which now all have a scientific mission to research. However, Humboldt is still being discussed in Germany. Current problems and policy decisions regarding German education are addressed by a joint initiative called ''Konzertierte Aktion Internationales Marketing für den Bildungs- und Forschungsstandort Deutschland'' (KAIM). KAIM coordinates efforts of the partners, which include the state and federal government, universities, trade unions and industry associations. The name of the group, KAIM, refers to earlier cooperative efforts, for example the Konzertierte Aktion at the end of the 1960s. It tries to improve the international position of German education and research capacities, including marketing. Estimating that American universities receive US$10 billion annually from tuition fees and other financial contributions, which KAIM sees as an important source of revenue for the United States, they have warned Germany to prepare for American attempts to market the American university model via the

World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland that regulates and facilitates international trade. Governments use the organization to establish, revise, and enforce the rules that g ...

in order to corner the international educational and research market. The Humboldt concept and its image are used by different and sometimes opposing parties in the German debate. In Germany, the

German Universities Excellence Initiative The Excellence Initiative of the German Council of Science and Humanities and the German Research Foundation (DFG) aims to promote cutting-edge research and to create outstanding conditions for young scholars at universities, to deepen coopera ...

was begun in 2005–06 to counter the perceived lack of cutting-edge achievement in both research and education in the state-funded universities. This initiative is primarily driven and funded at the federal level. The American tradition of large private grants and foundations for science has been mirrored in the 21st century, for example at

Freiberg University of Mining and Technology The Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (abbreviation: TU Bergakademie Freiberg, TUBAF) is a public Institute of technology, university of technology with 3,471 students in the city of Freiberg, Saxony, Freiberg, Saxony, Germany. The u ...

. Freiberg University, one of the oldest mining schools in the world, narrowly escaped closure after

German reunification German reunification () was the process of re-establishing Germany as a single sovereign state, which began on 9 November 1989 and culminated on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of the East Germany, German Democratic Republic and the int ...

. In 2007, it received a private grant in the triple-digit millions of

euro The euro (currency symbol, symbol: euro sign, €; ISO 4217, currency code: EUR) is the official currency of 20 of the Member state of the European Union, member states of the European Union. This group of states is officially known as the ...

s from the ''Dr.-Erich-Krüger-Stiftung'' (Dr. Erich Krüger Foundation), the largest grant ever made to a state-owned university in Germany. Peter Krüger, the Munich-based real estate and food retail entrepreneur who endowed the foundation, was born in

Freiberg Freiberg () is a university and former mining town in Saxony, Germany, with around 41,000 inhabitants. The city lies in the foreland of the Ore Mountains, in the Saxon urbanization axis, which runs along the northern edge of the Elster and ...

and started an apprenticeship there in 1946, but was driven away by the

East German East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR), was a country in Central Europe from its formation on 7 October 1949 until its reunification with West Germany (FRG) on 3 October 1990. Until 1989, it was generally vie ...

communists because of his bourgeois background. He was made an honorary senator of the University of Mining and Technology in 2007. Critics see in many current reforms, such as the

Bologna process file:Bologna-Prozess-Logo.svg, 96px, alt=Logo with stylized stars, Logo file:Bologna zone.svg, alt=Map of Europe, encompassing the entire Bologna zone, 256px, Bologna zone The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements b ...

, a departure from Humboldt's ideal towards greater occupational studies with economic interests. Furthermore, it is criticized that the freedom of teaching is restricted by the

References

External links

Germany and the Humboldtian Model R. D. Anderson DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206606.003.0004
European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914 R. D. Anderson, 2004, , Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2010 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206606.001.0001
Neo-Humboldtian university – a model of 21st century university. Antti Hautamäki's Sustainable innovation blog

Wilhelm von Humboldts Idee der Universität

Jürgen Hofmann: Welche Bedeutung hat das Humboldt'sche Erbe für unsere Zeit?
{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldtian Model Of Higher Education Pedagogical movements and theories Higher education in Germany History of academia 19th century in Prussia