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Household air pollution (HAP) is a significant form of
indoor air pollution Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...
mostly relating to cooking and heating methods used in
developing countries A developing country is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreem ...
. Since much of the cooking is carried out with biomass fuel, in the form of
wood Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...
,
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, ...
, dung, and
crop residue Crop residues are materials left in an agricultural field after the crop has been harvested. These residues include stalks and stubble (stems), leaves and seed pods. Good management of field residues can increase efficiency of irrigation and c ...
, in indoor environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily women and children face serious health risks. In total, about three billion people in developing countries are affected by this problem. The
World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level o ...
(WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths. The
Global Burden of Disease Disease burden is the impact of a health problem as measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. It is often quantified in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Both ...
study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million. The problem is closely related to
Energy poverty and cooking One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning t ...
. Smoke from traditional household solid fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion products, including both fine and coarse
particulate matter Particulates – also known as atmospheric aerosol particles, atmospheric particulate matter, particulate matter (PM) or suspended particulate matter (SPM) – are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The te ...
(e.g., PM2.5, PM10),
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide ( chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simpl ...
(CO),
nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula . It is one of several nitrogen oxides. is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year for use primarily in the productio ...
(NO2),
sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic gas responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic a ...
(SO2), and a variety of organic air pollutants. Technology-based solutions to this problem tend to focus on the supply of
improved cookstove One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning ...
s although behavioral changes can also be important.


Problem description and scale

Three billion people in developing countries rely on biomass fuel, in the form of
wood Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...
,
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, ...
, dung, and
crop residue Crop residues are materials left in an agricultural field after the crop has been harvested. These residues include stalks and stubble (stems), leaves and seed pods. Good management of field residues can increase efficiency of irrigation and c ...
, as their domestic cooking and heating fuel. Since much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily women and children face serious health risks. The major sources of indoor pollution include combustion and building materials. Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle-income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa, 200,000 in the Eastern Mediterranean region, 99,000 in Europe and 81,000 in the Americas. The remaining 19,000 deaths occur in high-income countries. Even though the rate of dependence on biomass fuel is declining, this dwindling resource will not keep up with population growth which could ultimately put environments at even greater risk. Over the past several decades, there have been numerous studies investigating the air pollution generated by traditional household solid fuel combustion for space heating, lighting, and cooking in developing countries. It is now well established that, throughout much of the developing world, indoor burning of solid fuels (biomass, coal, etc.) by inefficient, often insufficiently vented, combustion devices results in elevated exposure to household air pollutants. This is due to the poor combustion efficiency of the combustion devices and the elevated nature of the emissions. In addition, they are often released directly into living areas.
Long, C., Valberg, P., 2014. Evolution of Cleaner Solid Fuel Combustion, Cornerstone, http://cornerstonemag.net/evolution-of-cleaner-solid-fuel-combustion/
Smoke from traditional household solid fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion products, including both fine and coarse
particulate matter Particulates – also known as atmospheric aerosol particles, atmospheric particulate matter, particulate matter (PM) or suspended particulate matter (SPM) – are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The te ...
(e.g., PM2.5, PM10),
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide ( chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simpl ...
(CO),
nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula . It is one of several nitrogen oxides. is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year for use primarily in the productio ...
(NO2),
sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic gas responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic a ...
(SO2), and a variety of organic air pollutants (e.g.,
formaldehyde Formaldehyde ( , ) ( systematic name methanal) is a naturally occurring organic compound with the formula and structure . The pure compound is a pungent, colourless gas that polymerises spontaneously into paraformaldehyde (refer to section ...
,
1,3-butadiene 1,3-Butadiene () is the organic compound with the formula (CH2=CH)2. It is a colorless gas that is easily condensed to a liquid. It is important industrially as a precursor to synthetic rubber. The molecule can be viewed as the union of two v ...
,
benzene Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms ...
,
acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde (IUPAC systematic name ethanal) is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3 CHO, sometimes abbreviated by chemists as MeCHO (Me = methyl). It is a colorless liquid or gas, boiling near room temperature. It is one of the ...
,
acrolein Acrolein (systematic name: propenal) is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde. It is a colorless liquid with a piercing, acrid smell. The smell of burnt fat (as when cooking oil is heated to its smoke point) is caused by glycerol in the burning fa ...
,
phenols In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of one or more hydroxyl groups (— O H) bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest is phenol, . Phenolic compounds are ...
,
pyrene Pyrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) consisting of four fused benzene rings, resulting in a flat aromatic system. The chemical formula is . This yellow solid is the smallest peri-fused PAH (one where the rings are fused through mo ...
,
benzopyrene A benzopyrene is an organic compound with the formula C20H12. Structurally speaking, the colorless isomers of benzopyrene are pentacyclic hydrocarbons and are fusion products of pyrene and a phenylene group. Two isomeric species of benzopyrene ar ...
,
benzo(a)pyrene Benzo 'a''yrene (B''a''P or B ) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and the result of incomplete combustion of organic matter at temperatures between and . The ubiquitous compound can be found in coal tar, tobacco smoke and many foods, esp ...
,
dibenzopyrenes Dibenzopyrenes are a group of high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with the molecular formula C24H14. There are five isomers of dibenzopyrene which differ by the arrangement of aromatic rings: dibenzo 'a'',''e''yrene, dibenzo ' ...
, dibenzocarbazoles, and
cresols Cresols (also hydroxytoluene or cresylic acid) are a group of aromatic organic compounds. They are widely-occurring phenols (sometimes called ''phenolics'') which may be either natural or manufactured. They are also categorized as methylphenols. ...
). In a typical solid fuel stove, about 6–20% of the solid fuel is converted into toxic emissions (by mass). The exact quantity and relative composition is determined by factors such as the fuel type and moisture content, stove type and operation influencing the amount.


Health impacts

Most measurements have been focused on breathing-zone exposure levels of particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the main products of incomplete combustion and are considered to pose the greatest health risks. Indoor PM2.5 exposure levels have been consistently reported to be in the range of hundreds to thousands of micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3). Similarly, CO exposure levels have been measured to be as high as hundreds to greater than 1000 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). A recent study of 163 households in two rural Chinese counties reported geometric mean indoor PM2.5 concentrations of 276 μg/m3 (combinations of different plant materials, including wood, tobacco stems, and corncobs), 327 μg/m3 (wood), 144 μg/m3 (smoky coal), and 96 μg/m3 (smokeless coal) for homes using a variety of different fuel types and stove configurations (e.g., vented, unvented, portable, fire pit, mixed ventilation stove). Rural Kenya has been the site of various applied research projects to determine the intensity of emissions that commonly occur from use of biomass fuels, particularly wood, dung, and crop residue.
Smoke Smoke is a suspension of airborne particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-produc ...
is the result of the incomplete
combustion Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combus ...
of
solid fuel Solid fuel refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to release energy, providing heat and light through the process of combustion. Solid fuels can be contrasted with liquid fuels and gaseous fuels. Common examples of solid fuel ...
which women and children are exposed to up to seven hours each day in closed environments.Smoke's increasing cloud across the globe
''Practical Action'', accessed 5 May 2007.
These emissions vary from day to day, season to season and with changes in the amount of airflow within the residence. Exposure in poor homes far exceeds accepted safety levels by as much as one hundred times over. Because many Kenyan women utilize a three-stone fire, the worst offender, one kilogram of burning wood produces tiny particles of soot which can clog and irritate the bronchial pathways. The smoke also contains various poisonous gases such as
aldehydes In organic chemistry, an aldehyde () is an organic compound containing a functional group with the structure . The functional group itself (without the "R" side chain) can be referred to as an aldehyde but can also be classified as a formyl grou ...
,
benzene Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms ...
, and
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide ( chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simpl ...
. Exposure to IAP from the combustion of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a causal agent of several diseases. Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a type of progressive lung disease characterized by long-term respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation. The main symptoms include shortness of breath and a cough, which may or may not produce ...
(COPD) are the leading causes of disease and death from exposure to smoke.
Cataracts A cataract is a cloudy area in the lens of the eye that leads to a decrease in vision. Cataracts often develop slowly and can affect one or both eyes. Symptoms may include faded colors, blurry or double vision, halos around light, trouble ...
and
blindness Visual impairment, also known as vision impairment, is a medical definition primarily measured based on an individual's better eye visual acuity; in the absence of treatment such as correctable eyewear, assistive devices, and medical treatment� ...
,
lung cancer Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma (since about 98–99% of all lung cancers are carcinomas), is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. Lung carcinomas derive from transformed, mali ...
,
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, ...
, premature births and low birth weight are also suspected of being caused by IAP.


Women and girls

Women and girls are largely responsible for collecting fuel-wood for cooking in most households, particularly in rural communities and in refugee camps. Women and girls also make up the majority of deaths from household air pollution. Replacing traditional kerosene/firewood stoves with cleaner ethanol stoves in Nigeria has been shown to mitigate adverse pregnancy outcomes from HAP.


Approaches


Early interventions

Unfortunately, finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of IAP – improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing
sustainability Specific definitions of sustainability are difficult to agree on and have varied in the literature and over time. The concept of sustainability can be used to guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. sustainable livi ...
– is complex and in need of continual improvement. Efforts to improve cook stoves in the past, beginning in the 1950s, were primarily aimed at minimizing
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...
with no concern for IAP, though the effectiveness of these efforts to save firewood is debatable. Various attempts had various outcomes. For example, some improved stove designs in Kenya significantly reduced particulate emissions but produced higher CO2 and SO2 emissions. Flues to remove smoke were difficult to design and were fragile.


Improved success

Current improved interventions however, include smoke hoods which operate in much the same manner as flues, to extract smoke, but are found to reduce levels of IAP more effectively than homes that relied solely on windows for ventilation.Health, Environment And The Burden Of Disease: A Guidance Note
, Cairncross, S., O'neill, D., McCoy., A., Sethi, D. 2003. DFID. Accessed 10 May 2007.
Some features of newly improved stoves include a chimney, enclosing the fire to retain heat, designing a pot holder to maximize heat transfer, dampers to control air flow, a ceramic insert to reduce heat loss, and multi-pot systems to allow for cooking multiple dishes. Stoves are now known to be one of the least-cost means to achieve the combined objective of reducing the health burden of IAP and in some areas reducing environmental stress from biomass harvesting.Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the Global Environment
Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007.
Some success in installation of interventions, including improved cook stoves, has been achieved primarily due to an interdisciplinary approach which includes multiple stakeholders. These projects have discovered that key
socio-economic Socioeconomics (also known as social economics) is the social science that studies how economic activity affects and is shaped by social processes. In general it analyzes how modern societies progress, stagnate, or regress because of their loc ...
issues must be addressed to ensure the success of intervention programs. A multitude of complex issues indicate improved stoves are not merely a tool to save fuel.


Sustainable energy options

Large-scale combustion of biomass is only feasible if carried out in a sustainable manner. The concern is paramount for regeneration of renewable and sustainable fuel-wood sources if it is to continue to be available long-term. Attempts at sustainable solutions in Kenya could include developing
energy crop Energy crops are low-cost and low-maintenance crops grown solely for energy production by combustion (not for food). The crops are processed into solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, such as pellets, bioethanol or biogas. The fuels are burned to ...
s (trees and shrubs) which would also provide additional income for farmers. This solution would benefit cropland or rangeland prone to
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is d ...
and flooding as the root systems and leaf litter would enhance soil stability.Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya
, UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.
Careful selection of regenerating varieties would be most sustainable because soil stability is not disrupted due to tilling and planting. Some people view this solution as a way to further exploit forests, but with proper management of forest resources this could be a viable solution. Fuels and cook stove technology can be assessed on two factors: energy efficiency and emissions in the household. High-performing efficient stoves can improve environmental outcomes to an extent even with unclean fuels (such as firewood and biomass). According to a study comparing environmental, social, and economic life cycle impacts of cooking fuels, with more efficient stoves "more of the heating value of the fuel is converted into useful cooking energy and therefore less fuel must be produced, transported, and burned to deliver the same amount of cooking". Other sustainable options include liquid and gas fuels that are combusted in high-performing efficient stoves. For instance,
ethanol Ethanol (abbr. EtOH; also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound. It is an alcohol with the chemical formula . Its formula can be also written as or (an ethyl group linked to a ...
produced from cellulosic/non-food feedstocks (wood, agricultural residue) has lower environmental life cycle impacts compared to ethanol produced from sugar and starch materials. LPG, though made from non-renewable fossil fuels, still has lower negative health impacts than traditional fuels – thus even though it is not a sustainable alternative, it creates far less emissions impacts than traditional fuels.


Challenges


Supply

There exist trade-offs between efficiency and sustainability on the supply side of the cook stoves and fuels market. While developing cook stoves that use efficient and clean fuel sources is environmentally ideal, often this is not a viable solution due to barriers to scaling up production and consumption of these fuels. For instance, electric stoves are cited as emission-free 'clean' alternatives to biomass at the household level. However, negative externalities still exist – ambient air pollution in areas near power plants still poses a health risk, while the generation of electricity in India and China (countries largely dependent on coal for electricity generation) still poses significant environmental risks. Moreover, only households that are connected to the electric grid in a country or region will have access to electricity for household energy consumption, thereby excluding a large swathe of rural communities.


Demand

On the demand side, challenges exist in terms of creating an enabling environment for cook stove acquisition. Incorporating
culturally sensitive Cultural sensitivity, also referred to as cross-cultural sensitivity or cultural awareness, is the knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of other cultures and others' cultural identities. It is related to cultural competence (the skills needed fo ...
behavior change techniques (BCTs) into demand interventions is necessary to foster large-scale behavior change, as discussed below. The other prohibitive aspect of cook stove interventions that do not involve paternalistic good provision is the high up-front costs of improved stoves. Consumers at the bottom of the income pyramid are often the target end-users of these improved technologies, but due to a lack of collateral or isolation, they do not have access to traditional forms of consumer finance and credit. Innovations in business models and the increased proliferation of
microfinance Microfinance is a category of financial services targeting individuals and small businesses who lack access to conventional banking and related services. Microfinance includes microcredit, the provision of small loans to poor clients; savings ...
institutions (MFIs) are addressing these issues – however, MFIs face challenges of scaling up.


Government intervention

Given the negative externalities associated with unclean cook stove technology – the negative impact on women and girls; lack of environmental sustainability; and increased risk of diseases associated with HAP – there is a strong case for government intervention. For instance, one form of intervention could be direct subsidies linked to health and climate impacts – for example, targeted subsidies carbon markets. The provision of public goods such as consumer education, access to consumer finance would also be beneficial interventions. Subsidies towards investment in R&D for cleaner technologies and fuels, as well as for the implementation of a baseline standards and testing framework for cleanliness and efficiency (also provision of a public good), is necessary to create an effective and sustainable supply chain.


Developments for improved cookstoves

There have been significant developments in energy efficient cooking solutions (
improved cookstove One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning ...
s), such as the Wonderbag, which can also significantly reduce fuel requirements for residential cooking. Improvements in technology have allowed for the use of more sustainable cooking solutions with traditional fuels, such as the BioLite Home Stove, a biomass stove which reduces fuel consumption by 50% and emissions by up to 95%. Innovations in business models have also allowed for cook stove suppliers to "dramatically improve both manufacturer and end-user economics, while achieving high levels of health and environmental benefits". For instance, Inyeneri is a for-profit energy company in Rwanda that operates as more as a 'cooking fuel utility company'. Its model successfully addresses a number of problems with stove adoption including prohibitively high upfront stove costs, consumer tendency to combine new and old cooking solutions, and lack of commercial viability of these enterprises. Additionally, innovations in mobile technology have allowed companies like PayGo Energy in Kenya and KopaGas in Tanzania to overcome the cost barrier that low-income consumers face, including the high up-front cost of stoves and the inaccessibility of purchasing fuels in small quantities (a form of the poverty penalty). MFIs have also begun to turn their attention to clean energy access, as seen with the success of the USAID-funded Renewable Energy Microfinance and Microenterprise Program (REMMP). National and international effort must be stepped up to advance short and long-term solutions for the millions of women and children who suffer from poverty and disease as a result of indoor air pollution. Scientists predict the African continent will be the first to experience the
effects of global warming The effects of climate change impact the physical environment, ecosystems and human societies. The environmental effects of climate change are broad and far-reaching. They affect the water cycle, oceans, sea and land ice (glaciers), sea lev ...
where widespread poverty will put millions at further risk due to their limited capabilities to adapt. The potential is great for a more sustainable Africa with commitment from within and outside the region.
Pneumonia Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severit ...
is the number one killer of children in the world and indoor air pollution is a strongly significant risk factor for severe pneumonia. The global health community designated 2 November to be
World Pneumonia Day World Pneumonia Day (12 November) provides an annual forum for the world in the fight against pneumonia. More than 100 organizations representing the interests of children joined forces as the Global Coalition against Child Pneumonia to hold th ...
in order to raise awareness about the disease and its causes.


Education interventions and behaviour change techniques

Educational intervention can contribute to reducing exposure to smoke by implementing behaviour change techniques that people to the dangers and encourage a willingness to alter living and cultural practices which could have a significant impact on mitigating exposure to IAP. Behaviour change is one aspect of influencing demand that can be achieved through targeted social marketing campaigns, which are usually of two types: either mass-market campaigns or focused approaches at the local and household level that employ demonstrations and follow up visits. Studies show that mass marketing campaigns do in fact increase awareness of risks of household air pollution, but are often unsuccessful in raising purchases of improved stoves. Design of these interventions must be undertaken with the knowledge that "consumer needs and preferences are complex and are influenced by many contextual and social factors that require a deep understanding of culture, going beyond technology and economics". These factors include intra-
gender issues Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures u ...
, felt needs, cultural significance of food, and religious and cultural beliefs. Evidence of one successful government intervention was revealed by China who, between 1980 and 1995, disseminated 172 million improved cookstoves. This effort proved more successful due to the inclusion of local users, particularly women, who were involved in the design and fieldwork process.


Primary intervention for children

Children up to five years of age spend 90% of their time at home. Globally, 50% of pneumonia deaths among children under five years of age are due to particulate matter inhaled from
indoor air pollution Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...
. Many homes around the world used solid fuels for cooking. These fuels release large amounts of carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter. These chemical irritants when inhaled may cause different pulmonary conditions ranging from pulmonary epithelial cancer or acute pulmonary tract infection.


Country examples


Kenya

As of 2004, Kenya has shown a willingness to undertake biomass energy issues with the understanding that consumption is associated with indoor air pollution and environmental degradation. Suggestions from the
United Nations Development Programme The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)french: Programme des Nations unies pour le développement, PNUD is a United Nations agency tasked with helping countries eliminate poverty and achieve sustainable economic growth and human dev ...
include establishing an institution that will deal exclusively with biomass energy by developing
policy Policy is a deliberate system of guidelines to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. A policy is a statement of intent and is implemented as a procedure or protocol. Policies are generally adopted by a governance body within an orga ...
guidelines on sustainable firewood, charcoal, and modern biomass such as cleaner fuels and
wind Wind is the natural movement of air or other gases relative to a planet's surface. Winds occur on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few ...
, solar, and small scale
hydropower Hydropower (from el, ὕδωρ, "water"), also known as water power, is the use of falling or fast-running water to produce electricity or to power machines. This is achieved by converting the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of ...
. Short-term solutions rest in more efficient domestic energy use by way of improved cook stoves which provide more affordable options in the near future than a complete shift to nonsolid fuels. Long-term solutions rest on transition to modern cleaner fuels and alternative energy sources within a broad international and national policy and economic agenda. Government support for long-term solutions is feasible as witnessed by current efforts in
Zambia Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most central point. Its neighbours are t ...
to develop policy to promote biofuels. Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita (but not the number of watts added). More than 30,000 small solar panels, each producing 12 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. For an investment of as little as $100 for the panel and wiring, the PV system can be used to charge a car battery, which can then provide power to run a fluorescent lamp or a small television for a few hours a day. More Kenyans adopt solar power every year than make connections to the country's electric grid. The following information represents one successful intervention known as the Kenya Smoke and Health Project (1998–2001)Kenya Smoke and Health Project
ITDG. 1998-2001. Accessed 5 May 2007.
which involved fifty rural households in two separate regions,
Kajiado Kajiado is a town in Kajiado County, Kenya. The town is located south of Nairobi, along the Nairobi – Arusha highway (A104 road). Kajiado has an urban population of 24,678 (2019 census). Local people are predominantly of the Maasai tribe. ...
and West Kenya. These areas were chosen due to different climate, geographic, and
cultural Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.T ...
implications. Community participation was the primary focus for this project and as a result, those involved indicated the results far exceeded their expectations. Local women's groups and, in the case of the project in West Kenya, men were actively involved. By involving the end-users the project resulted in more widespread acceptance and created the further benefit of providing local income. Three key interventions were discussed and disseminated; ventilation by enlarging windows or opening eaves spaces, adding smoke hoods over the cooking area, or the option of installing an improved cook stove such as the Upesi stove. Smoke hoods are free-standing units that act like flues or chimneys in their effort to draw smoke out of the dwelling. They can be used over traditional open fires and this study showed they contribute to considerably lower levels of IAP. The smoke hood models were made with hard manila paper and then transferred to heavy-gauge galvanized sheet metal and manufactured locally. This resulted in further employment opportunities for the artisans who were trained by the project. The Upesi stove, made of clay and kiln-fired, was developed by Practical Action and East African partners to utilize wood and agricultural wastes. Because this stove was designed and adapted for local needs it produced several winning features. Not only does it cut the use of fuel-wood by approximately half, and reduce exposure to household smoke, it also empowers local women by creating employment as they are the ones who make and market the stoves. These women's groups gain access to technical training in production and marketing and enjoy higher wage earnings and improved
social status Social status is the level of social value a person is considered to possess. More specifically, it refers to the relative level of respect, honour, assumed competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society. St ...
as a result of the introduction of this improved stove. Various benefits were realized including improved health; the most important aspect to each of the villagers involved. The people reported less internal heat allowing for better sleep, fewer
headaches Headache is the symptom of pain in the face, head, or neck. It can occur as a migraine, tension-type headache, or cluster headache. There is an increased risk of depression in those with severe headaches. Headaches can occur as a resu ...
and less
fatigue Fatigue describes a state of tiredness that does not resolve with rest or sleep. In general usage, fatigue is synonymous with extreme tiredness or exhaustion that normally follows prolonged physical or mental activity. When it does not resolve ...
, less eye irritation and coughs and
dizziness Dizziness is an imprecise term that can refer to a sense of disorientation in space, vertigo, or lightheadedness. It can also refer to disequilibrium or a non-specific feeling, such as giddiness or foolishness. Dizziness is a common medical c ...
. Safety increased due to the smoke hoods preventing goats and children from falling into the fire and less
soot Soot ( ) is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed ...
contamination was observed, along with snakes and rodents not entering the home. Windows allowed for the ability to view cattle from indoors, and also reduced
kerosene Kerosene, paraffin, or lamp oil is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum. It is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households. Its name derives from el, κηρός (''keros'') meaning " wax", and was re ...
needs due to improved interior lighting. Overall, the indoor environment improved greatly from various simple things that are taken for granted in modern western homes. Greater indoor light also allows for more income generation for women as they can do beadwork by the window when weather doesn't allow for this work outdoors. Children also benefit from increased lighting for homework.
Interpersonal relationships The concept of interpersonal relationship involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. Interpersonal relationships vary in their degree of intimacy or self-disclosure, but also in their duration, in t ...
developed among the women due to the project, and men better supported their wives initiative when the result benefited them as well. While initial efforts to improve stoves were limited in success, current efforts are more successful due to the recognition that sustainable domestic energy resources are "central to reducing poverty and hunger, improving health…and improving the lives of women and children" The optimal short-term goal in minimizing rural poverty is to provide inexpensive and acceptable solutions to the local people. Not only can stoves contribute to this intervention, but the use of cleaner fuels will also provide further benefits.


Guatemala

Similar improved-stove projects have proven successful in other regions of the world. Improved stoves installed as part of the Randomized Exposure Study of Pollution Indoors and Respiratory Effects (RESPIRE) study in Guatemala were found to be acceptable to the population and produce significant health benefits for both mothers and children. Mothers in the intervention group had lower blood pressure and reductions in eye discomfort and back pain. Intervention households were also found to have lower levels of small particles and carbon monoxide. Children in these households also had lower rates of asthma. This initial pilot program has evolved into CRECER (Chronic Respiratory Effects of Early Childhood Exposure to Respirable Particulate Matter), which will attempt to follow children in intervention households for a longer period of time to determine whether the improved stoves also contribute to greater health over the lifespan.


India

The National Program on Improved Chulhas in India has also had some success in encouraging the use of improved stoves among at-risk populations. Begun in the mid-1980s, this program provides subsidies to encourage families to purchase the longer-lasting chulhas and have a chimney installed. A 2005 study showed that stoves with chimneys are associated with a lower incidence of cataracts in women. Much of the available information from India is more of a characterization of the issue and there is less data available from intervention trials.


China

China has been particularly successful at encouraging the use of improved stoves, with hundreds of millions of stoves installed since the beginning of the project in the early 1980s. The government very intentionally targeted poorer, rural households, and by the late 1990s nearly 75% of such households contained "improved kitchens." A 2007 review of 3500 households showed an improvement in
indoor air quality Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...
in intervention households characterized by lower concentrations of small particles and carbon monoxide in household air. The program in China involved intervention on a large scale, but the cost of stoves was heavily subsidized so it is not known if its success could be replicated.


See also

*
Energy poverty and cooking One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning t ...
* Envirofit *
Guatemala Stove Project The Guatemala Stove Project (GSP), is a registered Canadian charity (#871977617 RR0001) that raises funds and provides volunteers for the building of masonry cookstoves in Guatemala's Altiplano (Western Highlands). The Guatemala Stove Project wo ...
*
Rocket stove A rocket stove is an efficient and hot burning stove using small-diameter wood fuel. Fuel is burned in a simple combustion chamber containing an insulated vertical chimney, which ensures almost complete combustion prior to the flames reaching th ...
*
Rural electrification Rural electrification is the process of bringing electrical power to rural and remote areas. Rural communities are suffering from colossal market failures as the national grids fall short of their demand for electricity. As of 2017, over 1 billion ...
*
Sick building syndrome Sick building syndrome (SBS) is an unsubstantiated diagnosis where health problems are attributed to buildings. The cause of the health problems are unknown. Symptoms attributed to SBS may or may not be a direct result of inadequate cleaning or ...
* Renewable energy in China


References


External links


World Health Organization Page on Indoor Air Pollution



IPS story on the Cost of IAP to Women's Health

Practical Action

2 November is World Pneumonia Day


{{DEFAULTSORT:Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Nations Building biology International development Air pollution