Today just as 1000 years ago, images of the Goddess are everywhere in India. You'll find them painted on the sides of trucks, pasted to the dashboards of taxis, postered on the walls of shops. You'll often see a color painting of the Goddess prominently displayed in Hindu homes. Usually the picture is hung high on the wall so you have to crane your neck backward, looking up toward her feet. ..In India, Goddess worship is not a 'cult,' it's a religion, ..an extraordinarily spiritually and psychologically mature tradition. Millions of people turn every day with heartfelt yearning to the Mother of the Universe.
Early origins
To date, the earliest Mother Goddess figurine unearthed in India (nearThe later Indus Valley population centers ofHarappa Harappa (; Urdu/ pnb, ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a ...andMohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';.e., Indus Valleyreligion. Some of the cults and rituals of the simpler peoples were adopted by the higher, but probably not in the original, unsophisticated form. They were given an aristocratic colour hat reflected their worshipers' moreelevated position in the society." As these philosophies and rituals evolved in the northern reaches of the subcontinent, additional layers of Goddess-focused tradition were expanding outward from the sophisticated Dravidian civilizations of the south. The "cult of the Female Principle was a major aspect of Dravidian religion," Bhattacharyya notes. "The concept of Shakti was an integral part of their religion and their female deities eventually came to be identified with thePuranic Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...,Durga Durga ( sa, दुर्गा, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around c ...orKali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In this tra .... ..The cult of the '' Sapta Matrika'', or Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the Shakta religion, may lsobe of Dravidian inspiration."
Philosophical development
Shaktism as we know it began with the literature of theVedic Age The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (ca. 1300–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, b ...; further evolved during the formative period of the Hindu epics; reached its full flower during the Gupta Age (300-700 CE), and continued to expand and develop thereafter.
Vedas
As the Indus Valley Civilization slowly declined and dispersed, its peoples mixed with other groups to eventually give rise to the Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 - 600 BCE). Female divinity continued to have a place in belief and worship, but generally in a more subordinate role, with goddesses serving principally as consorts to the great gods. The most important of the female deities mentioned in theVedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...isUshas Ushas (Vedic Sanskrit: / ') is a Vedic goddess of dawn in Hinduism. She repeatedly appears in the Rigvedic hymns, states David Kinsley, where she is "consistently identified with dawn, revealing herself with the daily coming of light to the worl .... Number of hymns in the Vedas are dedicated exclusively to her. The three divine mothers mentioned in theRig Veda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...from whom the Vedic gods took their birth areAditi Aditi ( Sanskrit: अदिति, lit. 'boundless' or 'limitless' or 'innocence') is an important Vedic goddess in Hinduism. She is the personification of the sprawling infinite and vast cosmos. She is the goddess of motherhood, consci ...,Prithvi Prithvi or Prithvi Mata ( Sanskrit: पृथ्वी, ', also पृथिवी, ', "the Vast One") is the Sanskrit name for the earth, as well as the name of a devi (goddess) in Hinduism and some branches of Buddhism. In the Vedas, her ...andSaraswati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a g .... Prithvi continued to exist in later Hinduism asBhudevi Bhumi ( sa, भूमि, Bhūmi), also known as Bhudevi and Vasundhara, is a Hindu goddess who is the personification of the Earth. She is a consort of the god Vishnu. According to Vaishnava tradition, she is the second aspect of Vishnu's cons ...(goddess of the earth). According to Bhattacharyya, "it may be said that Aditi was the most ancient mother of the gods, whose features ad already becomeobscure even in the Vedic Age. ..The Harappan other Goddesswas probably reflected in he Vedicconception of Aditi, thought to be a goddess of yore even in the ''Rigveda'' itself." Indeed, Vedic descriptions of Aditi are vividly reflected in the countless so-called ''Lajja Gauri Lajjā Gaurī is a lotus-headed Hindu goddess associated with abundance, fertility and sexuality, sometimes euphemistically described as ''Lajja'' ("modesty"). She is sometimes shown in a birthing posture, but without outward signs of pregnancy. ...'' idols (depicting a faceless, lotus-headed goddess in birthing posture) that have been worshiped throughout India for millennia:In the first age of the gods, existence was born from non-existence. The quarters of the sky were born from she who crouched with legs spread. The earth was born from she who crouched with legs spread, and from the earth the quarters of the sky were born.The historically recurrent theme of the Devi's all-encompassing, pan-sexual nature arises explicitly for the first time in such declarations as: "Aditi is the sky, Aditi is the air, Aditi is all gods. ..Aditi is the Mother, the Father, and the Son. Aditi is whatever shall be born." Also significant is the appearance, in the famous Rig Vedic hymn ''Devi Sukta'', of two of Hinduism's most widely known and beloved goddesses: ''Vāc Vacha ( sa, वाच्, '), a Vedic goddess is a personified form of speech. She enters into the inspired poets and visionaries, gives expression and energy to those she loves; she is called the "mother of the Vedas" and consort of Prajapati, t ...'', identified with the present-daySaraswati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a g ...; and ''Srī'', now better known asLakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with '' Maya'' ("Illusion"). A .... In the hymn, still recited by thousands of Hindus each day, the Goddess unambiguously declares:I am the Sovereign Queen; the treasury of all treasures; the chief of all objects of worship; whose all-pervading Self manifests all gods and goddesses; whose birthplace is in the midst of the causal waters; who in breathing forth gives birth to all created worlds, and yet extends beyond them, so vast am I in greatness.
Upanishads
The great Kena Upanishad (c. 750-500 BCE) tells an early tale in which the Devi appears as the ''shakti'', or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. It begins with the Vedic trinity ofAgni Agni (English: , sa, अग्नि, translit=Agni) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism. He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hi ...,Vayu Vayu (, sa, वायु, ), also known as Vata and Pavana, is the Hindu god of the winds as well as the divine massenger of the gods. In the '' Vedic scriptures'', Vayu is an important deity and is closely associated with Indra, the king of ...andIndra Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...boasting and posturing in the flush of a recent victory over a demon hoard – until they suddenly find themselves bereft of divine power in the presence of a mysterious ''yaksha The yakshas ( sa, यक्ष ; pi, yakkha, i=yes) are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness. They appear in ...'', or forest spirit. When Indra tries to approach and question the ''yaksha'', it disappears, replaced by the Devi in the form of a "highly adorned" ''yakshini ''Yakshinis'' or ''yakshis'' (यक्षिणी sa, yakṣiṇī or ''yakṣī''; pi, yakkhiṇī or ''yakkhī'') are a class of female nature spirits in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious mythologies that are different from devas and ...'':It wasSignificantly, Bhattacharyya notes that "a study of the extant ''yaksha'' and ''yakshini'' images f this periodshows that the later images of the gods and goddesses were shaped after them." The canonical ''Uma Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi in ..., the daughter ofHimavat Himavat ( Sanskrit: हिमवत्, lit. ''frosty'') is the personification of the Himalayan mountains in Hinduism. He is the guardian deity of the Himalayas, and finds mention in the epic '' Mahabharata'' and other Hindu scriptures. Nom .... Indra said to her, 'Who was that yaksha?' She replied, 'It isBrahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X .... It is only through the victory of Brahman that you have thus become great.' After that Indra and the ''devas'' realized the Truth ..having known Brahman through such direct experience.Shakta Upanishads Shakta Upanishads are a group of minor Upanishads of Hinduism related to the Shaktism theology of a Goddess (Devi) as the Supreme Being. There are 8 Shakta Upanishads in the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads. They, along with other minor Upanis ...'' are much more recent, most dating between the 13th and 18th centuries, and generally relate to sectarian matters ofSrividya Srividya (24 July 1953 – 19 October 2006), also known as Sreevidya, was an Indian actress best known for her work predominantly in Malayalam and Tamil films, along with few Telugu, Kannada and Hindi films. In a career spanning for 40 years, ...worship. While their archaic Sanskrit usages "tend to create the impression thathey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title ...belong to a hoary past, not one of the verses cast in the Vedic mold can be traced to a Vedic source."
Epic period
While "no goddess of a purely Shakta character" is mentioned in the greatVaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...epic ''Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...'' (c. 200 BCE - 200 CE), the ''Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...'' (c. 400 BCE - 400 CE) is full of references that confirm the ongoing vitality of Shakta worship.Devi is also mentioned in Devyatharva sookta, Triporopanishad, and there are many verses in vedas regarding various forms of goddess. The main Goddess of the pantheon held as Durga the central goddess. Mahabharat The Great Epic thus refers to the goddess residing in theHowever, it is in the Epic's ''Durga Stotras'' that "the Devi is first revealed in her true character, omprisingnumerous local goddesses combined into one ..all-powerful Female Principle." Meanwhile, the greatVindhyas The Vindhya Range (also known as Vindhyachal) () is a complex, discontinuous chain of mountain ridges, hill ranges, highlands and plateau escarpments in west-central India. Technically, the Vindhyas do not form a single mountain range in the ..., the goddess who is fond of wine and meat (') and worshiped by the hunting peoples." The ongoing process of Goddess-worshiping indigenous peoples "coming into the fold of the caste system lso brought with ita religious reflex of great historical consequence."Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, na ...epic, '' Silappatikaram'' (c. 100 CE) was one of several literary masterpieces amply indicating "the currency of the cult of the Female Principle in South India" during this period – and, once again, "the idea that Lakshmi, Saraswati, Parvati, etc., represent different aspects of the same power."
Puranas
Taken together with the Epics, the vast body of religious and cultural compilations known as thePuranas Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...(most of which were composed during theGupta period The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ..., c. 300 - 600 CE) "afford us greater insight into all aspects and phases of Hinduism – its mythology, its worship, its theism and pantheism, its love of God, its philosophy and superstitions, its festivals and ceremonies and ethics – than any other works." Some of the more important Shakta-oriented Puranas include the ''Devi Purana'' and the ''Kalika Purana The Kalika Purana ( sa, Kālikā Purāṇa), also called the Kali Purana, Sati Purana or Kalika Tantra, is one of the eighteen minor Puranas (''Upapurana'') in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. The text was likely composed in Assam or Cooch Beh ...'', in which Devi is described as "the supramental '' Prakriti''" to whom the world owes its origin, "while she does not owe her origin to anything." By far, however, the most important Puranas from the Shakta standpoint are the ''Markandeya Purana The ''Markandeya Purana'' ( sa, मार्कण्डेय पुराण; IAST: ) is a Sanskrit text of Hinduism, and one of the eighteen major Puranas. The text's title Markandeya refers to a sage in Hindu History, who is the central c ...'', the ''Brahmanda Purana The ''Brahmanda Purana'' ( sa, ब्रह्माण्ड पुराण, ) is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas, a genre of Hindu texts. It is listed as the eighteenth Maha-Purana in almost all the anthologies. The text ...'', and the ''Devi-Bhagavata Purana The Devi Bhagavata Purana ( sa, देवी भागवतपुराणम्, '), also known as the Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, Srimad Bhagavatam, Bhagavata Purana or simply ''Devi Bhagavatam'', is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas of Hindui ...'', from which the key Shakta scriptures are drawn.
''Devi Mahatmya''
By far, the most important text of Shaktism is the ''Devi Mahatmya'' (also known as the ''Durga Saptashati'', ''Chandi'' or ''Chandi-Path''), found in the ''Markandeya Purana''. Composed some 1,600 years ago, the text "wove together the diverse threads of already ancient memory and created a dazzling verbal tapestry that remains even today the central text of the Hindu Goddess." Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition.'" As the earliest Hindu scripture "in which the object of worship is conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G", the ''Devi Mahatmya'' also marks the birth of "independent Shaktism"; i.e. the cult of the Female Principle as a distinct philosophical and denominational entity.The influence of the cult of the Female Principle ad alreadyplaced goddesses by the sides of the gods of all systems as their consorts, and symbols of their energy or ''shakti''. But the entire popular emotion centering round the Female Principle was not exhausted. So need was felt for a new system, entirely female-dominated, as system in which even the great gods like Vishnu or Shiva would remain subordinate to the goddess. This new system – containing vestiges of hoary antiquity, varieties of rural and tribal cults and rituals, and strengthened by newfangled ideas of different ages – came to be known as Shaktism.
''Lalita Sahasranama''
Within the Hindu genre of ''Sahasranama ' is a Sanskrit term which means "a thousand names".Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''sahasranAman'', A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford Unive ...s'' (literally, "thousand-name" hymns, extolling the names, deeds and associations of a given deity), the ''Sri Lalita Sahasranama Stotra'', or ''"Hymn to the Thousand Names of the Auspicious Goddess Lalita"'', is "a veritable classic, widely acknowledged for its lucidity, clarity and poetic excellence." The ''Lalita Sahasranama'' is part of the ''Brahmanda Purana'', but its specific origins and authorship are lost to history. Based upon textual evidence, it is believed to have been composed in South India not earlier than the 9th or later than the 11th century CE. The text is closely associated with another section of the ''Brahmanda Purana'' entitled ''Lalitopakhyana'' (''"The Great Narrative of Lalita"''), which extols the deeds of the Goddess in her form as ''Lalita-Tripurasundari'', in particular her slaying of the demon ''Bhandasura''. The text operates on a number of levels, containing references not just to the Devi's physical qualities and exploits but also an encoded guide to philosophy and esoteric practices of ''kundalini yoga Kundalini yoga () derives from '' kundalini'', defined in tantra as energy that lies within the body, frequently at the navel or the base of the spine. In normative tantric systems kundalini is considered to be dormant until it is activated ( ...'' and ''Srividya Srividya (24 July 1953 – 19 October 2006), also known as Sreevidya, was an Indian actress best known for her work predominantly in Malayalam and Tamil films, along with few Telugu, Kannada and Hindi films. In a career spanning for 40 years, ...'' Shaktism. In addition, every name and group of names within the ''Sahasranama'' is considered to have highmantric Mantric is a Norwegian progressive metal band from Oslo that formed in 2007. Background When the last remaining founding members of Extol, vocalist Peter Espevoll and drummer David Husvik, decided to end the band in 2007, the remaining mem ...value independent of its content, and are often prescribed in '' sadhanas'' or ''prayogas'' to accomplish particular purposes.
''Devi Gita''
The late Puranic age saw the beginnings of ''Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...'' – "new religious movements of personalistic, theistic devotionalism" that would come to full fruition between 1200 and 1700 CE, and still in many ways define the mainstream of Hindu religious practice. The ''Devi Gita'' is an important milestone, as the first major Shakta "theistic work o besteeped in ''bhakti''." The ''Devi Gita'' is the final and best-known portion of the vast 11th-century scripture known as the ''Devi Bhagavata Purana The Devi Bhagavata Purana ( sa, देवी भागवतपुराणम्, '), also known as the Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, Srimad Bhagavatam, Bhagavata Purana or simply ''Devi Bhagavatam'', is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas of Hindui ...'', a text exclusively dedicated to the Devi "in her highest iconic mode, as the supreme World-Mother ''Bhuvaneshvari'', beyond birth, beyond marriage, beyond any possible subordination to Shiva." Indeed, the Purana's "most significant contribution to the Shakta theological tradition is the ideal of a Goddess both single and benign." The ''Devi-Bhagavata Purana'' retells the tales of the ''Devi Mahatmya'' in much greater length and detail, embellishing them with Shakta philosophical reflections, while recasting many classic tales from other schools of Hinduism (particularly Vaishnavism) in a distinctly Shakta light:The ''Devi-Bhagavata'' was intended not only to show the superiority of the Goddess over various male deities, but also to clarify and elaborate on her nature on her own terms. ..The Goddess in the ''Devi-Bhagavata'' becomes less of a warrior goddess, and more a nurturer and comforter of her devotees, and a teacher of wisdom. This development in the character of the Goddess culminates in the ''Devi Gita'', which "repeatedly stresses the necessity of love for the goddess, with no mention of one's gender, as the primary qualification," a view "inspired by the devotional ideals of Shaktism.
Samkhya and Vedanta
As the first millennium wound to an end, "religious movements of the South began to exert tremendous influence on the North" – and the Southern contribution to Shaktism's emergence was significant:''The dualistic metaphysics of Tantric traditions indicates the influence of Samkhya on Tantra. Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wildKorravai Kotṟavai (), also spelled ''Kotravai'' or ''Korravai'', is the goddess of war and victory in the Tamil tradition. She is also the mother goddess and the goddess of fertility, agriculture, and hunters. In the latter form, she is sometimes refer ...'', the Tamil goddess of war and victory, was easily identified with ''Durga Durga ( sa, दुर्गा, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around c ...'', howas also identified with the ''Bhagavati Bhagavatī ( Devanagari: भगवती, IAST: Bhagavatī), is a Hindu epithet of Sanskrit origin, used as an honorific title for female deities in Hinduism. It is primarily used to address one of the Tridevi: Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Par ...'' of Kerala and the eternal virgin enshrined in ''Kanyakumari Kanniyakumari (; , referring to Devi Kanya Kumari), also known as Cape Comorin, is a city in Kanniyakumari district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent and the southernmost city in mainland Ind ...''. She was invoked in one or another of her nine forms, '' Navadurga'', or as ''Bhadrakali Bhadrakali (IAST: Bhadrakālī; ), also known as Mahakali and Kali, is a Hindu goddess. According to Shaktism, she is one of the fierce forms of the Supreme Goddess Shakti, or Adi Parashakti, mentioned in the Devi Mahatmyam. In Vaishnavi ...''. The Tamil tradition also associates her with ''Saraswati'' or ''Vāc Vacha ( sa, वाच्, '), a Vedic goddess is a personified form of speech. She enters into the inspired poets and visionaries, gives expression and energy to those she loves; she is called the "mother of the Vedas" and consort of Prajapati, t ...'', as also with ''Srī'' and ''Lakshmi''. Thus in Durga the devotee visualised the triple aspects of power, beneficence and wisdom. In addition, many southern temples included shrines to the '' Sapta Matrika'' and "from the earliest period the South had a rich tradition of the cult of the village mothers, concerned with the facts of daily life.Kali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In this tra ...standing on a slumberingShiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of Prakriti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. Shakta philosophy also elaborated Samkhya theory on the phases of cosmic evolution (''tattvas According to various Indian schools of philosophy, ''tattvas'' () are the elements or aspects of reality that constitute human experience. In some traditions, they are conceived as an aspect of deity. Although the number of ''tattvas'' varies ...'') by expanding the number of phases from 25 to 36 tattvas. "It is worthy of note that this scheme of ''tattvas'' enables the Shakta philosophy to solve the conundrum ... as to how the changeless ''Brahman'' becomes the changing universe, and how the One can become the Many. In the Shakta cosmogony the central idea is that Shakti issues out of the Absolute and is not different from ''Brahman'', being atherthe kinetic aspect of Brahman."
Tantras
In most schools of Shaktism, the ''Tantras Tantras ("''doctrine''" or "''framework''" or "''system''" ) refers to numerous and varied scriptures pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions rooted in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. The religious culture of the Tantras is essentially ...'' – a large genre of ritual manuals dating from as early as the 7th century CE and as late as the 19th century – are central scriptures. The Tantras "devised two main ''margas'' (paths of ''sadhana'') to reach the same goal": * ''Vamachara ''Vāmācāra'' ( sa, वामाचार, ) is a tantric term meaning "left-hand path" and is synonymous with the Sanskrit term ''vāmamārga''. It is used to describe a particular mode of worship or '' sadhana'' (spiritual practice) that is ...'' lineages generally favor ''external'' worship ('' puja'', ''murti In the Hindu tradition, a ''murti'' ( sa, मूर्ति, mūrti, ) is a devotional image such as a statue, or "idol" (a common and non-pejorative term in Indian English), of a deity or saint. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. T ...s'', etc.) and permit use of the ''panchamakara Panchamakara or Panchatattva, also known as the Five Ms, is the Tantric term for the five transgressive substances used in a Tantric practice. These are (alcohol), (meat), (fish), (pound grain), and (sexual intercourse). Taboo-breaking elemen ...'' (lit. "five substances", referencing certain controversial forms of worship) at various levels under controlled circumstances; and * '' Dakshinachara'' lineages generally prefer ''internal'' worship (meditative techniques, etc.) and essentially disapprove of the ''panchamakara'' under any circumstances. The proper path is generally determined by the guru based upon a given devotee's personal nature – i.e., as atamasic Tamas ( Sanskrit: तमस् ''tamas'' "darkness") is one of the three Gunas (tendencies, qualities, attributes), a philosophical and psychological concept developed by the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Ill ...''pasu'' (i.e., an ordinary person not particularly given to spiritual pursuits, and mainly preoccupied with worldly matters); arajas Rajas (Sanskrit: रजस्) is one of the three Guṇas (tendencies, qualities, attributes), a philosophical and psychological concept developed by the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.James G. Lochtefeld, Rajas, in The Illustrated Encycloped ...ic ''vira'' (an active and vigorous spiritual seeker, qualified to "heroically" engage more intensive forms of ''sadhana''); or a sattvic ''divya'' (a holy-natured person, having already achieved an extremely high level of spiritual maturity) – and various other factors. Around 800 CE,Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ..., the legendary sage and preceptor of theAdvaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ...system, implicitly recognized Shakta philosophy and Tantric liturgy as part of mainstream Hinduism in his powerful (and still hugely popular) hymn known as ''Saundaryalahari The Saundarya Lahari ( sa, सौन्दर्यलहरी) meaning "The waves of Beauty" is a famous literary work in Sanskrit attributed to Adi Shankara. Some believe the first part "Ananda Lahari" was etched on mount Meru by Ganesha hims ...'' or "Waves of Beauty". Shankara, while "not a Shakta in the sectarian sense, ..had a soft corner for Shakta religion, perhaps due to its popularity among the masses." Another important Shakta text often attributed to Shankara is the hypnotically exquisite ''Mahishasura Mardini Stotra'', a 21-verse hymn derived from the ''Devi Mahatmya'' that constitutes "one of the greatest works ever addressed to the supreme feminine power." By the thirteenth century, "the Tantras had assimilated a very large number of cults of various origins – regional, tribal and sectarian – ndhad assumed a completely Shakta character." From the fourteenth century onward, "the Shakta-Tantric cults had ..become woven into the texture of all the religious practices current in India," their spirit and substance infusing regional and sectarian vernacular as well as Sanskrit literature.
Rise of popular Shaktism
In the 18th and 19th centuries, "a good number of Shakta-Tantric works were composed" that "attempted to make the Tantric ideas popular among the masses." Notable examples include the ''Mahanirvana Tantra'', characterized by its "special modernism" and "liberal outlook, especially towards women." Works of the prolific and eruditeBhaskararaya Bhaskara raya () (1690–1785) is widely considered an authority on all questions pertaining to the worship of the Mother Goddess in Shakta tradition of Hinduism. He was born in a Maharashtrian Brahmin family at Hyderabad, Telangana. Bhaskara ra ..., the most "outstanding contributor to Shakta philosophy," also belong to this period and remain central to ''Srividya Srividya (24 July 1953 – 19 October 2006), also known as Sreevidya, was an Indian actress best known for her work predominantly in Malayalam and Tamil films, along with few Telugu, Kannada and Hindi films. In a career spanning for 40 years, ...'' practice even today. The great Tamil composer Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775–1835), a Srividya adept, set one of that tradition's central mysteries – the majestic ''Navavarana Puja'' – to music in a Caranatic classical song cycle known as the '' Kamalamba Navavarna Kritis''. "Dikshitar thus hrewopen the doors of rividyato all those who are moved to approach the Divine Mother through devotional music." In the meantime an even greater wave of popular Shaktism was swelling in eastern India with the passionate Shaktabhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...lyrics of twoBengali-language Bengali ( ), generally known by its endonym Bangla (, ), is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Bengal region of South Asia. It is the official, national, and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh and the second most widely spoken of t ...court poets—Bharatchandra Ray Bharatchandra Ray Gunakor ( bn, ভারতচন্দ্র রায় গুণাকর; 1712–1760) was an 18th-century Bengali and Sanskrit Sakta court poet and song composer. He is mostly known for his poetic work, '' Annadamangal'' or ...(1712–1760) andRamprasad Sen ( bn, রামপ্রসাদ সেন; c. 1718 or c. 1723 – c. 1775) was a Hindu Shakta poet and saint of eighteenth century Bengal. His ''bhakti'' poems, known as Ramprasadi, are still popular in Bengal—they are usually a ...(1718/20–1781)—which "opened not only a new horizon of the Shakti cult but made it acceptable to all, irrespective of caste or creed." More than 80 Shakta poets appeared in Bengal after Ramprasad ndby 1900 the number of Shakta lyrics exceeded 4,000. And the tradition still survives." From this point onward, "Shaktism was evolving as a liberal, universal religion" that touched nearly every aspect of Indian life. The evolution "achieved a completeness" in the great Shakta saint Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886), "who held from his Shakta experience that the aim of all religions was the same and that the difference between the personal and the impersonal god was no more than that between ice and water." Another major advocate of Shaktism in this period was Sir John Woodroffe (1865–1936), a High Court judge in British India and "the father of modern Tantric studies," whose vast oeuvre "bends over backward to defend the Tantras against their many critics and to prove that they represent a noble, pure, ethical system in basic accord with the Vedas and Vedanta." His complete works are still in print and remain influential to this day. Ramakrishna's chief discipleSwami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intr ...(1863–1902) "inherited from Ramakrishna the Shakta-oriented, synthetic outlook which insisted on the cult of Shakti in the programme of national regeneration," and in fact "regarded the country as the living image of the Divine Mother" – an image that resonated throughout India's struggle for independence. Another of India's great nationalists,Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo (born Aurobindo Ghose; 15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950) was an Indian philosopher, yogi, maharishi, poet, and Indian nationalist. He was also a journalist, editing newspapers such as ''Vande Mataram''. He joined the ...(1872–1950), later reinterpreted "the doctrine of Shakti in a new light" by drawing on "the Tantric conception of transforming the mortal and material body into omethingpure and divine," and setting a goal of "complete and unconditional surrender to the will of the Mother."
Modern developments
In certain regards, Bhattacharyya notes, Shaktism has so infused mainstream Hinduism that it has "ceased to be a sectarian religion," and presents "no difficulty for anyone to accept its essence." Shakta-oriented temples and pilgrimage sites draw ever-growing crowds and recognition. For example, in 2004 the monumentalMeenakshi Amman Temple Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundaraswarar Temple is a historic Hindu temple located on the southern bank of the Vaigai River in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi, a form of Parvati, and her consort, ...was shortlisted in the "New Seven Wonders of the World The New 7 Wonders of the World was a campaign started in 2000 to choose Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments. The popularity poll via free Web-based voting and small amounts of telephone voting was led by Canadian-Swiss ..." competition. Meanwhile, theVaishno Devi Vaishno Devi (also known as Mata Rani, Trikuta, Ambe and Vaishnavi) is a manifestation of the Hindu Mother Goddess, Durga or Adi Shakti. The words "''Maa''" and "''Mata''" are commonly used in India for '' mother'', and thus are often heavil ...shrine inJammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...attracts record numbers of pilgrims – five million in the 2007 as of September. The Indian film industry turns out scores of Shakta devotional films, perhaps none more famous than 1975's ''Jai Santoshi Maa ''Jai Santoshi Maa'' is a 1975 Indian Hindi-language devotional film directed by Vijay Sharma and written R. Priyadarshi. Santoshī Mā (also called Santoshi Mata) is the goddess of satisfaction. Usha Mangeshkar, sang the devotional songs for t ...'' ("Hail to the Mother of Satisfaction"), a low-budget box-office phenomenon that propelled a previously unknown deity, ''Santoshi Mata Santoshi Mata ( hi, संतोषी माता) or Santoshi Maa () is a Hindu goddess, who is venerated as "the Mother of Satisfaction", the meaning of her name. Santoshi Mata is particularly worshipped by women of North India and Nepal. A ...'', to dizzying heights of devotional fervor. A 36-episode television miniseries in 2003 and a successful 2006 remake of the original film suggest that this "new" goddess's following continues to expand.As her film brought her to life, ''Santoshi Ma'' quickly became one of the most important and widely worshiped goddesses in India, taking her place in poster-art form in the altar rooms of millions of Hindu homes. ..Yet it is hard to conceive that Santoshi Ma could have granted such instant satisfaction to so many people had she not been part of a larger and already well-integrated culture of the Goddess. Her new devotees could immediately recognize many of her characteristic moods and attributes, and feel them deeply, because she shared them with other goddesses long since familiar to them.Some scholars also identify a Shakta influence in the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus "through Web sites, world tours, ashrams and devotional groups across the globe, devotional publications and videos." While some of these teachers represent conservative and patriarchal lineages of mainstream Hinduism, Pechilis notes that others – for exampleMata Amritanandamayi Mātā Amritānandamayī Devī (born Sudhamani Idamannel; 27 September 1953), often known as Amma ("Mother"), is an Indian Hindu spiritual leader, guru and humanitarian, who is revered as 'the hugging saint' by her followers. In 2018, she w ...and Mother Meera – operate in a strongly "feminine mode" that is distinctly ''bhaktic'' and Shakta in nature. She observes:Female gurus are understood by Hindu tradition and by their followers alike to be manifestations of the Goddess; that is, as perfect embodiments of ''shakti''. ..The nature, presence, and teaching of the Hindu female gurus is universal. As gurus, they distinctively blend the formality and authority of classical tradition with the spontaneity of interactive encounter, harmonizing personal experience and the ultimate.Pechilis, pp. 9-10.
Notes
References
* * * * * * * * *Coburn, Thomas B., ''Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation''. State University of New York Press (Albany, 1991). *Dempsey, Corinne G., ''The Goddess Lives in Upstate New York: Breaking Convention and Making Home at a North American Hindu Temple.'' Oxford University Press (New York, 2006). *Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra, ''The Lalita Cult'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Delhi, 1942, 2d ed. 1991, 3d ed. 1999). *Erndl, Kathleen M., ''Victory to the Mother: The Hindu Goddess of Northwest India in Myth, Ritual, and Symbol'', Oxford University Press (New York, 1992). * * * * *Harper, Katherine (ed.), ''The Roots of Tantra'', State University of New York Press (Albany, 2002). *Hawley, John Stratton (ed.) and Wulff, Donna Marie (ed.), ''Devi: Goddesses of India''. University of California Press (Berkeley, 1996). *(a) Johnsen, Linda. ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Hinduism''. Alpha Books (Indianapolis, Ind., 2002). *(b) Johnsen, Linda, ''The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe." Yes International Publishers (St. Paul, Minn., 1999). *Joshi, L. M., ''Lalita Sahasranama: A Comprehensive Study of the One Thousand Names of Lalita Maha-tripurasundari.'' D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd (New Delhi, 1998). *Kali, Davadatta, ''In Praise of the Goddess: The Devimahatmya and Its Meaning''. Nicolas-Hays, Inc., Berwick, Maine, 2003). *Kapoor, Subodh, ''A Short Introduction to Sakta Philosophy'', Indigo Books (New Delhi, 2002, reprint of c. 1925 ed.). *(a) Kinsley, David. ''Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition''. University of California Press (Berkeley, 1988). *(b) Kinsley, David. ''Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas''. University of California Press (Berkeley, 1997). * *Krishna Warrier, Dr. A.J., ''The '', The Adyar Library and Research Center, Library Series, Vol. 89; Vasanta Press (Chennai, 1967, 3d. ed. 1999). *Kumar, Girish, "Introduction to Tantra Sastra, Part I." Interview with Sri Girish Kumar, former director of Tantra Vidhya Peethama, Kerala, India
''Mohan's World''
* * * * *Müller, F. Max (translator), ''The Upanishads''
*Nikhilananda, Swami (trans.), ''The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna ''The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna'' is an English translation of the Bengali religious text ''Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita'' by Swami Nikhilananda. The text records conversations of Ramakrishna with his disciples, devotees and visitors, record ...'', Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center (New York, 1942, 9th ed. 2000). *Pattanaik, Devdutt, ''Devi the Mother-Goddess: An Introduction''. Vakils, Feffer and Simons Ltd. (Mumbai, 2000). *Pechilis, Karen (ed.), ''The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States''. Oxford University Press (New York, 2004). * Sarma, Dr. S. A., ''Kena Upanisad: A Study From Sakta Perspective''. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (Mumbai, 2001). *(a) Shankarnarayanan, S., ''The Ten Great Cosmic Powers: Dasa Mahavidyas''. Samata Books (Chennai, 1972; 4th ed. 2002). *(b) Shankarnarayanan, S., ''Sri Chakra''. Samata Books (Chennai, 1971; 4th ed. 2002). *Subramuniyaswami, Satguru Sivaya, ''Merging with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Metaphysics'', Himalayan Academy (Hawaii, USA, 1999). *Suryanarayana Murthy, Dr. C., ''Sri Lalita Sahasranama with Introduction and Commentary.'' Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (Mumbai, 2000. Rep. of 1962 ed.). *Urban, Hugh B., ''Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion'', University of California Press (Berkeley, 2003). *White, David Gordon, ''Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts'', The University of Chicago Press (Chicago, 2003). *Winternitz, M., ''History of Indian Literature'', 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1927, 1933, rep., New Delhi, 1973). *Woodroffe, Sir John, ''Sakti and Sakta: Essays and Addresses'', Ganesh & Company (Madras, 9th Ed. 1987, reprint of 1927 edition). {{Good article Hindu denominations *